By:

School.edhole.com
Laplace and Lagrange were visitors at the Cauchy family
In1805 he took the entrance examination for the cole Polytechnique. He was
examined by Biota and placed second. At the cole Polytechnique his analysis
tutor was Ampre.
In 1807 he graduated from the cole Polytechnique and entered the
engineering school cole des Ponts et Chausses.
In 1810 Cauchy took up his first job in Cherbourg to work on port facilities
for Napoleon's English invasion fleet
In 1816 he won the Grand Prix of the French Academy of Science for a work
on waves. He achieved real fame however when he submitted a paper to the
Institute solving one of Fermat's claims on polygonal numbers made to
Marlene.
1817 lectured on methods of integration at the Collge de France.
His text Cours d'analyse in 1821 was designed for students at cole
Polytechnique and was concerned with developing the basic theorems of the
calculus as rigorously as possible.
In 1831 Cauchy went to Turin and after some time there he accepted an offer
from the King of Piedmont of a chair of theoretical physics.
In 1833 Cauchy went from Turin to Prague in order to follow Charles X and to
tutor his grandson. Met with Bolzano.
Cauchy returned to Paris in 1838 and regained his position at the Academy
Numerous terms in mathematics bear Cauchy's name:- the Cauchy integral
theorem, in the theory of complex functions, the Cauchy-Kovalevskaya
existence theorem for the solution of partial differential equations, the
Cauchy-Riemann equations and Cauchy sequences. He produced 789
mathematics papers,

i
x f i x f
y
x ) ( ) (

First Lesson: Introduces the notions of limits and defines

infinitesimals in terms of limits. An infinitesimal variable is
considered to be a sequence whose limit is zero.
Second Lesson: Definition of continuity
f(x+i)-f(x) is infinitesimal
Third Lesson: Definition of derivative:
Twenty-First Lesson: Definition of integration
Partition [x
0
,X] into [x
0
,x
1
], ,[x
n-1
,X]
Sum: S= (x
1
-x
0
)f(x
0
)+(x
2
-x
1
)f(x
1
)+ + (X-x
n-1
)f(x
n-1
)
Take the limit with more and more intermediate values.
Fixing x=h=dx rewrite S=S h f(x)=S f(x) x which becomes
in the limit. The notation for the bounds is due to Fourier.
The additivity propriety of the integral with respect to the
domain is also given.

X
x
dx x f
0
) (

X
x
dx x f
0
) ( :
Twenty-Sixth Lesson: Indefinite integrals are defined
and using the Intermediate Value Theorem for Integrals,
it is shown that F(x) is continuous. Moreover
F(x) is differentiable and F(x)(x)=f(x). This is a version
of the Fundamental Theorem.
Applications:
Q.: Solve w(x)=0! A.: w(x)=c.
Q.: Solve y=f(x)! A.:

with w(x)=0 or y=f(x)dx=F(x)+w(x),
where F(x) a particular solution.
Set F(x)= then F(x)=F(X)-F(x
0
)
for any particular solution F of F(x)=f(x)

x
x
x dx x f y
0
) ( ) ( w

X
x
dx x f
0
) (
Bernhard Riemann (1826 -1866) improved Cauchys definition by
using the sums
S= (x
1
-x
0
)f(c
0
)+(x
2
-x
1
)f(c
1
)+ + (X-x
n-1
)f(c
n-1
)
with x
i
c
i
x
i+1
.
which are now called Riemann sums. With this definition it is
possible to integrate more functions.
Henri Lon Lebesgue (1875-1941) found a new way to define
integrals, with which it is possible to integrate even more functions.
For this one uses so-called simple functions as an approximation
and measures their contribution by what is called a Lebesgue
mesure. This is technically more difficult and outside the scope of
usual calculus classes. It is however the integral of choice and is
used e.g. in quantum mechanics.
The Lebesgue integral can for instance be used to integrate the
function
f(x) defined by Dirichlet which is given by f(x)=1 if x is irrational and
f(x)=0 if x is rational. The answer is 1. Notice that the limit of the
Riemann sums does not exist, however.