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Example 2:
7
N :
1s 2s 2p
valence electrons
8
O
+
:
1s 2s 2p
valence electrons
Nitrogen monoxide ion, NO
+
The Lewis structure is :N O:
+
There is a bond and two bonds.
N O
P
x
P
y
P
z
P
z
P
x
P
y
Give the number of and
bonds in :
a)O
2
molecule
b)F
2
molecule
Mixing the s orbital and p orbital will
form two sp hybrid orbitals .
The shape of sp hybrid orbital will form
a linear and the angle is 180
o
Formation of sp Hybrid Orbitals
The orbital diagram for the valence
electrons in Be is.
Ground state Be:
2s 2p
In ground state, Be atom does not form
covalent bond with Cl atom because
electrons are paired in the 2s orbital in Be
atom.
Electron from 2s orbital is promoted to a 2p
orbital,
Excited state Be:
2s 2p
Mixing 2s orbital and 2p orbital to form
two equivalent sp orbitals.
Hybrid state Be:
sp
unoccupied
These two hybrid orbitals lie on the same
line, angle between them is 180
o
.
Each of BeCl bond is then formed by the
overlapping of a sp hybrid orbitals atom Be
and p orbital atom Cl resulting BeCl
2
molecule with a linear geometry.
Mixing the s orbital with the two p
orbitals to form three sp
2
hybrid orbitals.
These three sp
2
orbital lie in the same
plane and the angle between any two of
them is 120
o
.
Formation of sp
2
Hybrid Orbitals
s
P
x
P
y
Orbital diagram for the valence electron
in boron is
Ground state B:
2s 2p
Boron atom has one unpaired electron
and can form only one bond with other
orbital.
This will form a very unstable BF
molecule.
The electron in 2s orbital is promoted to
an unoccupied 2p orbital.
Excited state B:
2s 2p
The mixing the 2s orbital with the two 2p
orbitals form three sp
2
hybrid orbitals.
Hybrid state B:
sp
2
unoccupied
Overlap of boron sp
2
hybrid orbitals and 2p
orbital flourin atom to form sigma ( ) bond
in each of the BF bond.
The BF
3
molecule is planar with all the FBF
angle equal to 120
o
.
Hybridization B atom in BF
3
Ground State :
2s
2p
2s 2p
Excited State:
(Promotion of e)
sp
2
unoccupied
sp
2
hybridized state :
The sp
3
hybrid orbitals - one s orbital and
three p orbitals .
These four hybrid orbitals are directed
towards the four corners of a regular
tetrahedral shape
all the angles are 109.5
0
The carbon atom has two unpaired
electrons (one in each of the two 2p
orbitals).
H
l
H C H
l
H
The orbital diagram for valence electron in
carbon atom is
Ground state C:
2s 2p
It can form only two bonds with hydrogen
in its ground state.
Four C H bond in methane, one electron
from the 2s orbital has to be excited to
unoccupied 2p orbital.
Excited state C:
2s 2p
In the exited state there are four
unpaired electrons in carbon atom. The
2s orbital and 2p orbitals mix to form sp
3
hybrid orbitals.
Hybrid state C:
sp
3
The four sp
3
hybrid orbitals of carbon
overlap with s orbital of hydrogen to
form bonds in methane molecule.
Hybridization C atom in CH
4
Ground State :
2s 2p
2s 2p
Excited State:
(Promotion of e)
sp
3
sp
3
hybridized state :
1. Low melting and boiling points
form simple molecular crystal, molecules held together
by the weak van der Waals forces.
macromolecular compounds or crystals (eg. SiO
2
)have
very high melting points.
2. Insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolarsolvents
no attraction between the polar water molecules and the
nonpolar or neutral molecules in the lattice or liquid.
3. Electrical insulators
Neutral molecules and atoms released by melted simple
molecular / macromolecular compounds are not attracted to
any electrode. Not able to conduct electricity.
A type of covalent bond, the shared pair electrons
is provided by one atoms only.
Atoms donate shared pair electrons : donor
must have at least one lone pair in its valence
shell.
Atoms accepts shared pair electrons : acceptor.
have vacant orbitals in its outer shell.
Same characteristic as covalent bond.
Eg. Hydronium ion, H
3
O
+
Example:
Hydroxonium ion, H
3
O
+
..
H
:O: + H
+
O
H
H
H H
+
Sometimes shown as arrow pointing from the
donor atom to acceptor atom.
Show the formation of bonding
between a water molecule and an
ammonia molecule
Hydrogen Bond: Molecules containing NH, O-H, or
FH groups, and an electronegative O, N, or F.
attraction force between the positively-charged H
atom of a molecule and the negatively-charged
electronegative atom of another molecule.
Non polar and polar molecule
Non- polar molecule
Formed when the polar bond arrange
symmetrically around central atom.
Example BeCl
2
, BF
3
and CH
4
Homonuclear diatomic molecules such
as H
2
, N
2
, O
2
and Cl
2
are also nonpolar
molecules.
(ii) Polar molecule
When the arrangement of all polar bonds around
the central atom are not symmetrical.
Example : H
2
O, NH
3
and CH
3
Cl.
Heteronuclear diatomic molecules such as HCl,
CO and HBr are also polar molecules.
Polar molecules have permanent dipoles.
Van Der Waals Forces
General term for those intermolecular forces
Dipole dipole interaction Electrostatic
forces between the oppositely charged ends of
polar molecules.]
Dipole induced dipole interaction in a
mixture of molecules (polar and nonpolar) the
polar molecule and induce momentary dipoles
in nearby nonpolar molecules. This give rise to
electrostatic attractions.
London dispersion forces exist between all
molecules (polar and non polar). Regardless to
presence and absence of dipoles.
When 2 electrons in 2 adjacent atoms occupy
positions that make the atoms form temporary
dipoles.
Also sometime refer to as induced dipole-
induced dipole interaction.
The End..