Communication Basics

TRANSMITTER
RECEIVER
MEDIUM
Input to the transmitter is the information signal. Transmitter modifies this
signal into a suitable form so as to send along the medium to the distant end.
Receiver receives the signal from the medium and converts it to suitable
form for further application.
Medium can be of different types like copper cable, radio wave or Optical
Fiber Cable.
Fibre Optics 1
Communication Media
Guided
Unguided
e.g.Atmosphere
(Wire Less)
e.g.Twisted Pair Wire,
Co-axial Cable (Copper),
Fiber Optic Cable.
Communication Media
Fibre Optics 2
Optical Fiber Link
Light is guided through fiber.
TRANSMITTER
DRIVER
LASER
SOURCE
Converts elec. signal to light signal.
Driver modifies the information into a
suitable form for conversion into light
Source is LED or laser diode which does
the actual conversion.
FIBER LINK
MEDIUM FOR CARRYING LIGHT
RECIEVER
DETECTOR
Detector accepts light and
converts it back to elec.
signal.
Fibre Optics 3
Light
Ultraviolet (UV)
Visible
Infrared (IR)
Communication
wavelengths
850, 1310, 1550 nm
Low-loss wavelengths
UV
IR
Visible
850 nm
980 nm
1310 nm
1480 nm
1550 nm
1625 nm
l
Wavelength: l (nanometers)
Frequency: (tera hertz)
c = x l
Optical Spectrum
Advantages Of Optical Fiber
Very large information carrying capacity (band width) of
the order of several GHz.
Low loss :- Information can be sent over a large
distance. Unlike other medium the attenuation is flat in
optical fiber i.e. independent of information frequency.
Fibers are immune to ELECTRO MAGNETIC
interference.
Small size and light weight.
Greater safety Fiber is made of dielectric material
which do not conduct electricity .It cannot cause fire or
explosions.It is not prone to lightning.
Higher security No tapping possible.

Fibre Optics 5
Applications of Optical Fiber
Telecommunication Trunk Network
Subscriber Loop
CATV
Control Systems
Local Area Network




Fibre Optics 6
Light travels with different velocities in different media. The speed of light
changes when it travels from one material to another.

Also the direction of propagation changes.

This deflection is called refraction.
Index of refraction (refractive index) of a material denoted by n is the ratio
of the velocity of light c in free space to the velocity of light in that material v.
i.e. n =c/v
(e.g.- Refractive Index Of Glass ~ 1.5 )
A small portion of light always reflect back when it passes from one material to another.
Light Propagation
Fibre Optics 7
Snells Law
A
1
A
2
n
2
n
1
n
1
sinA
1
= n
2
sinA
2
As A
1
increases A
2
also increases. At a value
of A
1
=A called critical angle ,A
2
becomes
90
0
i.e. No light enters material 2
At any angle of incidence greater than A all light will be
reflected back to material 1.
1
2
n
1
> n
2
A
Propagation Of Light In Fiber
When a ray of light is incident at an angle greater than the
critical angle, it gets completely reflected back to the same
material.

This is called TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
Communication Through Fiber Uses This Principle.
Fibre Optics 9
Cladding Core
Coating
Fiber Geometry
An optical fiber is made of
three sections:

The core carries the light signals

The cladding keeps the light in the core

The coating protects the glass
Fiber dimensions are measured in m
1 m = 0.000001 meters (10
-6
)
1 human hair ~ 50 m



Refractive Index (n)
n = c/v
n ~ 1.467
n (core) > n (cladding)
Cladding
(125 m) Coating
(245 250
m)
Core
(8 62.5 m)
Fiber Dimensions
Fibre Optics 11
Classification Of Fibers
A. Material Classification

B. Mode Classification

C. Refractive Index Classification

Fibre Optics 12
A. Material Classification
Glass Core And Glass Cladding (Most Widely Used)

Glass Core And Plastic Cladding

Plastic Core And Plastic Cladding- (Inexpensive , But
Support Very Low Band Widths)




Fibre Optics 13
n
2

n
1

Cladding
Core
n
2

n
1

Cladding
Core
Multimode fiber
Core diameter varies
50 micro-m for step index
62.5 micro-m for graded index
Primarily used for intra-office
applications.
Not less expensive than single mode.
Single-mode fiber
Core diameter is about 9 micro-m
Only one mode (ray) propagates.
Bit rate - distance product
>100 THz-km
B. Mode Classification
C. Refractive Index Classification
Step Index fiber (SI Fiber)

Graded Index fiber (GRIN Fiber)
Fibre Optics 15
Single Mode Step Index Fiber
n
1
n
2
n
5-10 m
125 m
n
1
n
2
n
n
2
n
n
1
> n
2
> n
n
1
refractive index of core
n
2
refractive index of cladding
In Step Index Fiber Core has uniform refractive
index. A sharp step in refractive index at core -
cladding junction.
CLADDING
CORE



Fibre Optics 16
Multi Mode Fiber
Multi mode fibers are of two types:
1. Multi mode Step Index 2. Multi mode Graded
Index
Refractive index profile
50-100 m
125 m
n1
n2
n
n2
n
125 m
n1
n2
n
n2
n
50-100 m
Core Has Uniform Refractive Index. A Sharp
Step In Core And Cladding Junction.
(n1 to n2)
Ref. Index Of Core Is Not Uniform. Rather
Gradually Decreases Radially Outwards
Fibre Optics 17
Types Of Single Mode Fiber
SMF : G.652 (standard, 1310 nm
optimized, unshifted)
Most widely deployed by far.
Introduced in 1986
SMF DS (dispersion shifted) : G.653
For single channel operation at 1550 nm
SMF : G.654
For WDM operation in the 1550 nm region
LEAF and True Wave (Non-Zero Dispersion
Shifted) : G.655
Latest generation fiber developed in mid 90s
For better performance with high-capacity DWDM Systems


Characteristics of Optical Fiber
A. Numerical Aperture

B. Dispersion
Fibre Optics 19
A. Numerical Aperture
It is the light gathering ability of a fiber. A fiber with large NA accepts and propagates
light well. A fiber with low NA requires highly directional light beam.
Mathematically Numerical Aperture NA = n
1
2
- n
2
2

Light acceptance cone
Fibre Optics 20
B. Dispersion
The spreading of light pulse as they travel
through the entire length of the fiber.

Dispersion limits the bandwidth.

Dispersion increases in direct proportion to
the square root of fiber length.
Fibre Optics 21
What Is Dispersion?
Dispersion is the spreading or broadening of light pulses as they propagate
through the fiber.

Too much dispersion gives rise to bit-errors at the receiver (i.e., the inability to
distinguish a 0 from a 1).
Not recognizable
1 0 1
1 ? 1
Classes of Dispersion
A. Modal Dispersion
Dispersion caused due to different paths the
light rays take to travel from one end to the
other. This is prominent in Multi Mode Fibers.
B. Chromatic Dispersion
Dispersion caused due to the variation in
velocities of different wave length
components of the transmitted light w.r.t the
refractive index of the material.


Fibre Optics 23
Types Of Dispersion Visualized
MMF (Step Index)
l
1

l
2

Optical Paths
Wavelengths
SMF
Difference in
arrival times
Modal
Chromatic
The difference in arrival times of the different components, would cause the
broadening of the signal at the receiving end, the result being dispersion.
Fibre Optics 24
Attenuation
It is a major factor considered in the designing of any transmission
system.
In fiber optics, attenuation is one factor which determines the
power loss.

Note: Power Loss is calculated in dB/km (decibels/kilometer).
Fibre Optics 25
Attenuation varies with the wave length of light.

6


5


4


3


2


1
Wave length
0 800 850 1000 1310 1550 1600
The fiber exhibits minimum attenuation at wavelength slots
850nm, 1310nm, and 1550nm . These are called first window,
second window and third window.
Graph of Loss in dB/Km versus Wavelength
Fibre Optics 26

Wave length

Attenuation range

850nm

2 to 2.5 dB/km

1310nm

0.4 to 0.5 dB/km

1550nm

0.25 to 0.3 dB/km
Wavelength and Attenuation Range
Sources of Losses in Fibers
(1) Absorption

(2) Scattering

(3) Geometric Effects
Fibre Optics 28
(1) Absorption
Intrinsic Absorption:
It is a natural property of glass - even purest glass
absorbs energy in selected wavelength regions near
to Ultra Violet region.

Absorption Due to Impurities:
Due to the presence of impurities like metal ions and
hydroxyl ions light energy is absorbed.
The peak of OH
_
ion absorption occurs at
approx.1400nm wave length range.


Fibre Optics 29
(2) Scattering
Loss of optical energy due to imperfections in the fiber
(localized density variations).
At imperfections light scatters in different directions and
thus energy is lost . This is known as Rayleigh Scattering.
It is inversely proportional to the fourth power of wave
length.

Fibre Optics 30
(3) Geometric Effects
Micro bending
Deformation of fiber axis (axial distortion)
during cabling causes light to couple out
of the fiber.

Macro bending
Loss due to excessive bending.

Fiber Bending radius = 3 mm (apprx)
Fibre Optics 31
Central strengthening member (Fiber-
Reinforced-Plastic)

Dummy tube
Fibers
Filler (Cellulose paper/
bonded polyester)
Kevlar yarn
Polyethylene sheath
Polyethylene jacket
Loose tubes
Cable Construction
Fibre Optics 32
COLOR CODING IS VERY IMPORTANT: See Below,
BLUE
ORANGE
GREEN
BROWN
GREY
WHITE
RED
BLACK
YELLOW
VIOLET
ROSE
AQUA
Fiber Color Coding
Fibre Optics 33
Structure of 48 FIBER cable used in NBB route G.655
BLUE
ORANGE
GREEN
BROWN
GREY
WHITE
RED
BLACK
YELLOW
VIOLET
ROSE
AQUA

DUMMY
Actual Cable (
NBB)
Fibre Optics 34
Optical fiber Manufacturing is a 3 Step Process:
(I) Pre-form Manufacture
(II) Fiber Drawing
(III) Cabling
Finally, Fiber & Cable Characterization
Manufacturing of the OFC
Glass Purity Breakthrough
For Ordinary Glass propagation distance will reduce the
transmitted Light Power by 50% (i.e. 3 dB)
Window Glass 1 inch (~3 cm)
Optical Quality Glass 10 feet (~3 m)
Fiber Optics 9 miles (~14 km)
Fiber Optics Requires Very High Purity Glass
Fibre Optics 36
Low Attenuation : To give wider Repeater pacing.
Low Dispersion : To achieve High Data transmission.
High Strength : To use Fiber in demanding environments.

Low attenuation is achieved by
use of extremely high purity material in the deposition process.
Meticulous control of Process to prevent contamination.
Low Dispersion is achieved by
Accurate Control of Deposition Process.
Precise control of Dopants Flow Rate & Temperature.
High Strength is achieved by
Use of high quality pure material.
Precise control of Lathe traverse & Deposition Process.
Control of Pulling Process (Fiber Drawing).
Essential Fiber Parameters
Fibre Optics 37
Reasons for Fiber Joints
Fibers / Cables are not endless.

At both Transmitter and Receiver points, fiber
must be joined to that equipment.

Cable cuts and their subsequent restoration.


Fibre Optics 38
Connecting Fiber Optic Cables
Two general methods of joining fiber optic cables
Connectors
A disconnectable junction device where
removal and re-connections is needed.
Fusion Splicing
Precision splicing equipment used to fuse fibers
together for non-removable permanent cable
splices.
Fibre Optics 39
Components of Fiber Optic Connector
Dust Cap
Ceramic Ferrule
Crimp Sleeve
Strain Relief Boot
Connector Body
Fibre Optics 40
Types of Connectors
FC Connector
Used widely for Telecom and Datacom.
ST Connector
Limited data use. Control and Opto -
electronics.
SC Connector
Used mainly for Datacom and CATV.
From 70+ designs only few dominate real-world applications:
Fibre Optics 41
The Connector Ferrule End face
(Not to scale)
Ferrule
(2.5mm)
Glass Cladding
(125 micron)
Glass Core
Ferrule Materials:
Ceramic
Polymer / Plastic
Stainless Steel
Fibre Optics 42
Physical Contact
PC Connector ferrule are formed with a
convex end face of 15mm 5mm radius of
curvature to ensure the fiber cores are in
positive contact with each other.
The ferrules are pressed securely together
by a spring in each connector to maintain
this contact.

Fiber
Ferrule
End face
Fibre Optics 43
Connector End Face
Radius of Curvature
Connectors have convex ferrule end face. Proper physical contact
requires convex mating ferrule end faces.
A convex end face insures accurate contact between fiber ends
and eliminates a glass-to-air gap between mating fibers. As the
radius of curvature is made smaller, the losses are reduced.
Physical Contact Super Physical Contact Ultra Physical
Contact
PC SPC UPC


Smaller Radius
Fibre Optics 44
Insertion Loss
Determined by measuring how much transmitted light is lost as it passes through the
connector junction.

Expressed in dB.

Note : dB = 10log
10
(P
out
/ P
in
)

(example: 3 dB loss is 50 % loss of signal, because 10log
10
(0.5) ~ 3)

Typical Insertion loss is 0.2 dB (This represents 5% of signal loss)

Better the polishing, better is the insertion loss.
Fibre Optics 45
Loss Factors
End Gap
Finish and Dirt
Co-axiality
End Angle
Axial Run-Out
Core Mismatch
Fibre Optics 46
Magnified Connector End Face
Excellent Condition Scratched Core
Chipped Connector Cleaning Residue
Unclean, Lint or Dirt Scratched Face
Multimode Singlemode
Fibre Optics 47
Protrusion & Undercut
These are the defects in the ferrule polishing process.

Either are caused by failing to match the spherical surfaces
of the ferrule and fiber.

Protrusion: Undercut:
Result of insufficient Result of excess
polishing. polishing.
Fiber
Ferrule
Fibre Optics 48
Return Loss / Back Reflection / Back Scattering
Measurement of the amount of light reflected back by a change in refractive index
at the connector interface.

Will cause serious data speed limitations and reduced transmission efficiency.
incident
reflected
incident
reflected
PC
APC
The purpose of the APC angled surface is to reflect this stray light away from
the signal source so that it does not interfere.
Fibre Optics 49
Return Loss / Back Reflection
Return Loss / Back Reflection is expressed in dB (Decibels)

The typical return losses for various ferrule end face types:

PC Connector - 40 dB 1/10,000 reflected back

SPC Connector - 50 dB 1/100,000 reflected back

UPC Connector - 60 dB 1/1,000,000 reflected back

APC Connector - 70 dB 1/10,000,000 reflected back

We see that APC is the best since the loss is minimum.
Fibre Optics 50
Selection Criteria
1. Connector Performance
Insertion Loss : 0.1 to 1.0 dB per connection.
Return Loss : -20 dB to -70 dB ( for APC )
Repeatability of connection (specified at per 1000 mating)

2. Strength of Connector
Reliability / Strength of connection ( Rough handling)
Effect of environmental changes on losses.

3. Ease of Termination

4. Cost
Fibre Optics 51
Cleaning FO Connectors
With Fiber Optics, tolerance to dirt is near Zero.

Dust particles may scratch the ferrule/fiber end face if not cleaned properly, and
remedy will be changing the connector!

Use lint-free pads and Iso-propyl Alcohol for cleaning connectors.
This is effective and inexpensive.

Always keep dust caps on connectors, bulkhead splices, patch panels etc.

A system is only as good as its weakest link. Do not allow the connector to
become the point of failure because of poor attention. Choose the best connector
possible, frequently measure the losses of the connectors to check the
degradation, and clean every connector, every time.
Fibre Optics 52