SURFACE PHENOMENA

AND COLLOIDS
SURFACE TENSION
SURFACE TENSION
A molecule of a liquid attracts the molecules which surround it
and in its turn it is attracted by them
For the molecules which are inside a liquid, the resultant of all
these forces is neutral and all them are in equilibrium by
reacting with each other.
When these molecules are on the surface, they are attracted by
the molecules below and by the lateral ones, but not toward the
outside.
The resultant is a force directed inside the liquid. In its turn, the
cohesion among the molecules supplies a force tangential to
the surface.
So, a fluid surface behaves like an elastic membrane which
wraps and compresses the below liquid.
The surface tension expresses the force with which the surface
molecules attract each other.
WETTABILITY
WETTABILITY
Why does one fabric absorb water well while another seems to
refuse it?
Why does water collect into large drops on a greasy surface and
instead form an adherent film on a clean surface? According to
the nature of the liquid and the solid, a drop of liquid placed on a
solid surface will adhere to it more or less.
To understand this phenomenon it is necessary to take into
account the fact that molecules of a liquid are subject to a
cohesive force which keeps them united to one another, but
there is also an adhesive force which is the force with which the
molecules of the liquid adhere to the surface of materials that they
contact.
When the forces of adhesion are greater than the forces of
cohesion, the liquid tends to wet the surface, when instead the
forces of adhesion are less by comparison to those of cohesion,
the liquid tends to "refuse" the surface. In this people speak of
wettability between liquids and solids.
For example, water wets clean glass, but it does not wet wax.
CAPILLARITY
CAPILLARITY
Let us stay in the field of the wettability.
Surely you have noticed that water tends to rise near the walls of a
glass container.
This happens because the molecules of this liquid have a strong
tendency to adhere to the glass.
Liquids which wet the walls make concave surfaces (eg: water/glass),
those which do not wet them, make convex surfaces (eg:
mercury/glass).
Inside tubes with internal diameter smaller than 2 mm, called capillary
tubes, a wettable liquid forms a concave meniscus in its upper surface
and tends to go up along the tube
On the contrary, a non-wettable liquid forms a convex meniscus and its
level tends to go down.
The amount of liquid attracted by the capillary rises until the forces
which attract it balance the weight of the fluid column.
The rising or the lowering of the level of the liquids into thin tubes is
named capillarity.
Also the capillarity is driven by the forces of cohesion and adhesion we
have already mentioned.
WETTABILITY
SOAPS AND DETERGENTS
SOAPS AND DETERGENTS
How do soaps and detergents work in removing dirt?
Soaps and detergents are formed by special molecules, which
have a hydrophilic head, which therefore loves to remain in water
and a hydrophobic tail, which avoids water and loves fat
substances
Because of their hydrophobic tail, a part of the molecules of
detergent collects to the water surface forming a monomolecular
layer it lowers the surface tension of the water and makes
easier its penetration into the fabrics to be cleaned.
Within the water, the molecules of detergent collect themselves
in micelles and membranes, little aggregates of molecules united
by their hydrophobic tail
When they meet dirt, these molecules surround the particles and
insert their tail in them.
The hydrophilic heads attract the dirt toward water and with the
agitation of the liquid they contribute to remove the dirt from the
fabric.
SOAPS AND DETERGENTS

The crown of hydrophilic heads carries the particles of dirt in
the water where they end up in suspension and then they are
rinsed away.
Hence, the dirt water contains also greasy particles which have
been emulsified.
For the same reason, the detergents aid the formation of
emulsions.
The substances which lower the surface tension of a liquid are
called surfactants (from: surface-active agents).
The lowering of the surface tension of the water allows the
formation of soapy membranes, foam and soap bubbles.
CAPILLARITY
SOAP BUBBLES
SOAP BUBBLES

HOW DO THE SOAP BUBBLES FORM?
"How do soap bubbles form?
Why does soapy water produce foam while pure water does
not?".
When water sprays from a tap in a small basin, you can see
bubbles form, but they burst very soon.
This is due to the fact that the surface tension of the normal
water is high and it tends to draw the water molecules into the
main body of the water, to the point where the thickness of the
bubble wall is too thin to remain intact and quickly bursts.
Instead, the surface tension of the soapy water is much lower:
about a third of the pure water, so the molecules of the bubble
are less stressed and it can last longer.
SOAP BUBBLES

Soap and detergents lower the surface tension of water and,
as we have said, they are called surfactants.
As we have said in the paragraph on the soaps and
detergents, the molecules of surfactants have a hydrophilic
head and a hydrophobic tail.
When these molecules are dissolved in water, they tend to
collect on the surface with the tails outward, forming
continuous layers (figure 12 B).
The membranes of soapy water are made up by three layers:
the external two are formed by surfactant molecules and the
internal layer is formed by soapy water (figure 12 C).
These layers of surfactant molecules are very elastic and they
deform easily without breaking. They also slow the
evaporation of the water film and so extend the life of the
bubbles.
OSMOSIS
OSMOSIS
If you place two solutions of different concentration side by
side, keeping them separated only by means of a membrane,
you will see the level of the more concentrated solution
increase.
This happens because the two solutions try to attain the same
concentration by diffusion.
The membrane has to be semipermeable, that is it has to
allow the passage of the solvent but not of the solute.
The molecules of the solvent have to be smaller than those of
the dissolved substance.
In practice, this condition is very frequent given that the
molecules of water are very small.

OSMOSIS

It is necessary to remember that it is possible to make
solutions with other liquids also.
Osmosis is the tendency of the system to reach the same
concentration in both solutions.
It is a phenomenon of great importance in biology and which
is also the basis of the function of the kidney, of the
absorption of water by plants and which is used by industries
to concentrate or to purify solutions.
In fact, applying a pressure on the side of the more
concentrated solution, it is possible to reverse the process
and cause the solvent to pass to the less concentrated
solution.
This is the process of the reverse osmosis. It is used also to
purify water, to concentrate solutions, etc.
CAPILLARITY
SOLUTIONS
SOLUTIONS
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
When placed in water, many substances dissolve and are called
soluble, others do not dissolve and are called insoluble.
Salt and sugar easily dissolve in water.
If instead you put sand in water, you can mix for as long as you
want, but you will not succeed in dissolving the sand.
In fact, sand is insoluble in water.
In a solution, the material present in greater quantity is defined
solvent and that in smaller quantity solute.
What does it mean to say that a substance is soluble in another?
It means that the molecules of the solute separate each other and
they disperse among those of the solvent.
Instead, the insoluble substances keep themselves compact and
their molecules do not disperse into the solvent.

SOLUTIONS

As solvent, we have used the example of water because many
solids are soluble in water, but nearly every liquid can be a
solvent.
And then, why we should limit ourselves to the liquids?
Let us generalize the concept of solvent and concede to all
substances, solid or liquid or gaseous the possibility to be a
solvent.
At this point, even the solutes can belong to all of these three
states of matter.
For example, some solid solutions are the metal alloys such as
steel (Fe+C), brass (Cu+Zn), bronze (Cu+Sn).
Finally, all gases are completely soluble among each other.
Also common are solutions of gases in liquids.
For example, carbon dioxide is added to many beverages to
make them fizz. In the water of ponds, rivers and seas, gases like
oxygen, carbon dioxide and others go into solution in a natural
way.
CATEGORIES OF SOLUTIONS

SOLUTE SOLVENT EXAMPLE
Gas Gas air (nitrogen, oxygen, etc.)
Liquid Gas moist air (water vapor in air)
Solid Gas atmospheric dust
Gas Liquid CO2 in water (sparkling water)
Liquid Liquid wine (water + alcohol)
Solid Liquid marine water (salt in water)
Gas Solid gas in silicates (pumice stone)
Liquid Solid dental alloys (mercury in cadmium)
Solid Solid metal alloys (steel, bronze)
MIXTURES
MIXTURES
By mixing sugar with water, a solution is obtained.
If instead we mix sand into water, we obtain a mixture.
Also by mixing bits of coal and iron filings we obtain a mixture.
With a pair of thin tweezers it is possible to take away sand
grains from the water or pieces of coal from the filings, but it is
not possible to take away singly molecules of sugar from the
water because they are too much small.
Hence, what distinguishes a mixture from a solution?
In a mixture the particles are enough large to be separated by
mechanical means such as tweezers or sieves, in a solution this
is not possible because the particles which form it are so small
that they cannot be seen even with an electron microscope.
To separate the components of a solution it is necessary to use
physical method like distillation. So, mixtures are formed by
quite big particles, solution are formed by very small particles.
COLLOIDS
COLLOIDS
In the solutions, the molecules of the solute separate
each other and disperse among those of the solvent.
In the mixtures instead, the molecules do not
separate and the particles remain compact.
From the point of view of the sizes, solutions are
formed by very small particles (single molecules) and
the mixtures by quite large particles.
In an intermediate position, between mixtures and
solutions, there are the colloids.
They are dispersions of small particles, but not
molecule sized.
What distinguishes mixtures from colloids and from
solutions is therefore the size of the particles which
form them.
COLLOIDS

By convention, a colloid is a dispersion of particles which size is
comprised between 0.2 and 0.002 m (a micrometer, or micron,
= 10-6 meters).
If the particles are larger than 0.2 m, we have a mixture, if they
are smaller than 0.002 m, we have a solution.
In general, the components of a colloid are formed by small
aggregates of molecules, while the components of a solution
are single molecules.
Anyway, if these molecules are large enough, as it is the case
of many macromolecules, their solution will give a colloid.
So, the criterion of distinction between colloids and solutions
cannot be the presence of single molecules, but as we were
saying, the size of the particles which form them.

SOL
SOL

A sol is a dispersion of very thin solid particles in a liquid.
It has a liquid consistency and resembles a true solution.
An aqueous sol appears clear, very similar to common water.
Anyway, if you shine an intense beam of light across it, a part of
the light will be diffused from the particles which are in
suspension.
These particles are very small, but they are still enough large to
obstruct the light and diffuse it.
This phenomenon is called Tyndall effect.
You can observe it with sols, but not with true solutions.
GEL
GEL
A gel is a dispersion of very thin solid particles in a liquid and it has a
gelatinous consistency.
Increasing the concentration of the particles, a sol can pass to the
state of gel.
On the contrary, by diluting a gel you will obtain a sol.
So, what makes a sol different from a gel is its fluid or gelatinous
consistency.
Also the temperature can determine the passage from sol to gel and
vice versa.
For example, broth gelatin is gelatinous at room temperature, but it
becomes liquid when it is heated.
Animal gelatin is a reversible gel because depending on the
temperature it can pass from gel to sol and vice versa
The albumen of eggs instead is not reversible because when heated it
coagulates and it does not come back to the state of sol.
Silica gel absorbs moisture and keeps its properties with broad
concentrations of water.
Because its affinity for water it is used as dehumidifier.
When left to rest, a sol can spontaneously jell and come back to the
state of sol simply by mixing it (eg: aqueous suspensions of kaolin).
EMULSIONS
EMULSIONS
An emulsion is a dispersion of an insoluble liquid in another
liquid.
For instance, the oil is not soluble in water.
If you pour some oil in a container with water, it will float it and
keeps separate from the water.
Instead, if you vigorously shake the container, you will obtain a
dispersion of small drops of oil in water, however these drops
quickly join together, so that in a short time nearly all the oil will
return as before.
To make the emulsion more stable, before shaking the
container, add some detergent.
The surfactant molecules will arrange on the surface of the oil
drops with the heads outward.
As these heads have an electrical charge and as this charge is
always the same, the oil drops will repel each other and be
unable to return to the homogeneous layer as before.
So, surfactants can help you to obtain more stable emulsions.

EMULSIONS

There are special surfactants for emulsions, endowed of a higher
capability to stabilize the oil drops than the detergents.
There are also emulsifying agents for alimentary use such as lecithin
and emulsifiers for industrial purposes which are not edible.
Butter is formed by small water drops suspended in fat.
Cheese and mayonnaise too are considered emulsions.
A lot of creams used both in pharmacy and in cosmetics are
emulsions.
Fuels emulsified with water have been produced.
Emulsified oils are used in machine working to make it easier to cut
metals with machine tools.
In fact, metal cutting can create an intense heat, which has to be
removed if you want to avoid burning the tools.
The oil and water in the cutting fluid help remove the heat and make it
possible to cut metals efficiently.
Milk is another emulsion made up by small greasy drops in an aqueous
phase.
FOAMS
FOAMS
Foam is a dispersion of a gas in a liquid (liquid
foams) or in a solid (solid foams).
Among the liquid foams, we have the ones produced
by soaps and detergents, and various foods such as
wine, beer and many others.
Among the solid foams we have Pumice stone,
earthenware, sponges, expanded plastics like
expanded polystyrene and expanded polyurethane.
By dispersing helium in a liquid which produced
bubbles with very thin walls and which then
solidified, some researchers succeeded in
fabricating a solid foam lighter than air
Many thanks

UTS:
Kelas A, Rabu 23 April 2008
Kelas B, Kamis 24 April 2008

Sifat: Open book