Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Part 1
• The Skeleton System
• Growth & Repair
• Axial Skeleton
• Appendicular Skeleton
• Articulations
Part 2
• Muscular System
• Skeleton Muscle Fiber Contractions
• Whole Muscle Contraction
• Muscular Disorders and Homeostasis
• The Skeleton System
• Growth & Repair
• Axial Skeleton
• Appendicular Skeleton
• Articulations
Pic from
Human Biology
Pg 210
Intramembranous ossification is the classification for bones that form between fibrous tissue.
During fetal development, osteoblasts are formed from connective tissue cells and release
osteoid, mixing with calcium salts to bring about calcification. The bone formation process
takes place in the spongy bone, where it is coated by a periosteum, compact bone forms and
encloses the spongy bone. This process is used in healing fractured bones.
Growth & Repair
Another way bone growth occurs is by endochondral ossification. Calcified bone matrix
replaces cartilage, and on the inside the bone forms from the center outward towards
the ends.
The above diagram shows the steps as follows: the chondrocytes (cells) lay down
hyaline cartilage; periosteum forms producing osteoblasts; the bone collar (compact
bone) is formed by osteoblasts releasing osteoid which undergoes calcification; blood
vessels transport the osteoblasts to the ossification center where spongy bone is
formed; osteoclasts absorb spongy bone creating the medullary cavity; the secondary
ossification centers are created in the epiphysis after birth; articular cartilage and
cartilage at the epiphyseal plate are present; the growth plate separates the primary
center from each secondary center and this accounts for longitudinal growth in children
Pic from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone#Formation and adolescents.
Growth & Repair
Four distinct zones take place during endochondral ossification.
1. Resting Zone: next to epiphysis, contains cartilage
2. Proliferating Zone: chondrocytes undergo mitosis producing
new cells
3. Degenerating Zone: cartilage cells dye off
4. Ossification Zone: formation of bone
epiphysis
Bone remodeling is a term used to describe bone renewal, the constant bone breakdown by
osteoclasts and bone buildup by osteoblasts. This process helps maintain bone homeostasis,
keeping it strong. If bone is generated too fast (Paget’s Disease), it becomes soft and is
vulnerable to breakage and deformities. Blood calcium levels are regulated by parathyroid
hormone (speeds up bone recycling) and calcitonin (opposite PTH). Once one reaches about
middle age, a condition known as osteoporosis can set in. Osteoporosis is a decrease in bone
mass resulting in weakened and brittle bones. Exercise, calcium, and vitamin D can all help
in avoiding osteoporosis.
Growth & Repair
After a bone is fractured the repair
process takes several months and 4
steps: hematoma, fibrocartilaginous
callus, bony callus, and remodeling.
Hematoma is an accumulation of
clotted blood and is the first step that
takes place to healing fractured bones.
After a fracture, blood vessels are
ruptured and blood accumulates in the
break of the bone for about seven
hours. The next step, fibrocartilaginous
callus, is when the tissue repair begins
to fill the fractured part of the bone.
This process takes about three weeks.
The third step, bony callus, takes
about three to four month to complete.
Trabeculae of spongy bone is formed
by osteoblasts and fibrocartilage callus
is transformed to bony callus to aid in
fusing the broken bones together. The
final step, remodeling, is the formation
of new compact bone by osteoblasts
and the absorption of spongy bone by
osteoclasts, The result is a new
Pic from Human Biology Pg 214
medullary cavity.
• The Skeleton System
• Growth & Repair
• Axial Skeleton
• Appendicular Skeleton
• Articulations
The sinuses are air spaces and rimmed with mucous. The mastoid sinuses drain to the
middle part of the ear. The forehead is formed by the frontal lobe, the sides of the head
are formed by the parietal bones, and the back of the head is formed by the occipital
bone. The spinal cord passes through an opening at the bottom of the cranium known
as the foramen magnum, where it becomes the brain stem. The temporal bones have
an opening called the external auditory canal for the ears. The sphenoid bones help
form the eye sockets and complete the sides of the cranium. The ethmoid bone helps
form the nasal septum.
Axial Skeleton
The mandible is a facial bone known as the lower jaw. The maxillae is the
upper portion of a jaw and both the mandible and maxillae house teeth. The
cheek bones are called zygomatic bones and the nose is formed by the nasal
bones. The forehead shape is from the frontal bone. The hyoid bone is
attached to the larynx (voice box) by a membrane. Muscles that aid in
swallowing are attached to the hyoid bone.
Pic from
Human
Biology
Pg 223
Articulations
Bones are joined together at fibrous joints which aid in flexibility. The sutures are a
form of fibrous joints which are immovable in between cranial bones. Cartilaginous
joints have some flexibility. Synovial joints are the most flexible and are filled with
synovial fluid in the joint cavity. Above the cavity is articular cartilage and below is
menisci (sections of hyaline cartilage). Joints are supported by ligaments which are
responsible for connecting bones. Bursae are sacs filled with fluid that offer cushion
around joints and in areas between bones and muscles.
Synovial Joint