Photovoltaic Solar Systems

Manoj Kumar
Assistant professor
S.E.T Sharda University

What is a solar cell?

Solid state device that converts incident
solar energy directly into electrical energy
Efficiencies from a few percent up to 2030%
No moving parts
No noise
Lifetimes of 20-30 years or more

Cross Section of Solar Cell

How Does It Work?

The junction of dissimilar materials (n and p type
silicon) creates a voltage
Energy from sunlight knocks out electrons,
creating a electron and a hole in the junction
Connecting both sides to an external circuit
causes current to flow

Combining Solar Cells

Solar cells can be electrically connected in
series (voltages add) or in parallel (currents
add) to give any desired voltage and current
(or power) output since P = I x V
Photovoltaic cells are typically sold in
modules (or panels) of 12 volts with power
outputs of 50 to 100+ watts. These are then
combined into arrays to give the desired
power or watts.

Cells, Modules, Arrays

Rest of System Components

While a major component and cost of a PV system is
the array, several other components are typically
needed. These include:
The inverter DC to AC electricity
DC and AC safety switches
Batteries (optional depending on design)
Monitor (optional but a good idea)
Ordinary electrical meters work as net meters

Photovoltaic (PV) Terminology

Cell < Module < Panel < Array
Battery stores DC energy
Controller senses battery voltage and
regulates charging
Inverter converts direct current (DC )
energy to alternating current (AC) energy
Loads anything that consumes energy

Solar Cells and the PV Effect

Usually produced with Semi-conductor
grade silicon
Doping agents create positive and negative
regions
P/N junction results in 0.5 volts per cell
Sunlight knocks available electrons loose
Wire grid provides a path to direct current

Series Connections
Loads/sources wired in series
VOLTAGES ARE ADDITIVE
CURRENT IS EQUAL
One interconnection wire is used between
two components (negative connects with
positive)
Combined modules make series string
Leave the series string from a terminal not
used in the series connection

Parallel Connections
Loads/sources wired in parallel:
VOLTAGE REMAINS CONSTANT
CURRENTS ARE ADDITIVE
Two interconnection wires are used between two components
(positive to positive and negative to negative)

PV was developed for the space

program in the 1960s

The PV Market
Solar Calculators

REMOTE POWER

Lighting
Communications
Water Pumping
Mountain Cabins

Photovoltaic Array for Lighting

Telecommunications Tower

Remote Water Pumping

Recreation Vehicle Outfitted with

Solar Panels

A Solar Driven Band

NET METERING
In net metering, when the PV system produces
excess electricity, it is sent to the grid system,
turning the meter backwards. If you are using
more power than is being produced, or it is at
night, the electricity is received from the grid
system and the meter turns forwards. Depending
on PV size and electrical consumption, you may
produce more or less than you actually use.
Individual houses may become power producers.

Pole Mounted PV

Roof Integrated PV
If you are doing new construction or a
reroofing job, it is possible to make the roof
itself a solar PV collector. This saves the
cost of the roof itself, and offers a more
aesthetic design. The new roof can be
shingled or look like metal roofing. A few
examples follow.

Solar Roofing Shingles

Sizing a PV System to
Consumption
A PV system can be sized to provide part or all of
your electrical consumption. If you wanted to
produce 3600 kw-hr a year at a site that had an
average of 4.1 peak sun hours per day,
PV Size in KWp =

3600 kw-hr

4.1 kw-hr/day x 365 days/yr x 0.9 x0.98

= 2.7 KWp
Note: the 0.9 is the inverter efficiency and the
0.98 represents the loss in the wiring.

Thinking About Electrical

Consumption
1 kW = 1000 watts = 1.34 hp (presumably
the maximum sustained output of a horse)
1 kW-hr = 3413 Btu is the consumption of a
1 kW device operated for an hour (E=Pxt)

How Much Area Is Needed?

The actual area that you need depends on the
efficiency of the solar cells that you use. Typical
polycrystalline silicon with around 12% efficiency
will require about 100 ft2 of area to provide a peak
kilowatt. Less efficient amorphous silicon may
need 200 ft2 to provide the same output. Modules
are sold in terms of peak wattage and their areas
are given so you can easily determine the total
roof area that is needed for a given size array.

Find the efficiency of a solar cell module

given its power rating and its area
Assume it is a 100 Wp module and its area
is 0.8 m2. Remember that the peak power
rating is based on an intensity of 1000
watts/m2. So the maximum output with
100% efficiency is P = I x A = 1000 w/m2 x
0.8 m2 = 800 watts
The actual efficiency = Pactual peak/Pmaximum peak

= 100 watts/800 watts = 0.125 or 12.5%

Larger Scale PV
Of course you dont have to stop with home
based PV systems. They make equally good
sense for businesses and corporations who
want to reduce their cost of electricity by
reducing their peak power consumption, or
who want to emphasize their greenness as
part of their image, or who need to operate
in a grid failure.

Details of Roof Installation

Large 57 KW Rural Installation

Solar Added to Flat Roofs

(can upgrade the insulation as well)

The Greenpoint, NY Building

The sun is the primary energy

source for almost all energy
flows on the planet. Its time we
started using it.