Beruflich Dokumente
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Topic Outcomes
Compute line resistance.
Compute line inductance and capacitance.
Explain the effect of earth on the line
capacitance.
Find the induced voltage due to transmission
line magnetic field induction.
Discuss the transmission line electrostatic
induction and its effects.
Explain corona and its effects.
INTRODUCTION
All transmission lines in a power system exhibit the
electrical properties of resistance, inductance, capacitance
and conductance.
Inductance and capacitance are due to the effects of
magnetic and electric fields around the conductor.
These parameters are essential for the development of the
transmission line models used in power system analysis.
The shunt conductance accounts for leakage currents
flowing across insulators and ionized pathways in the air.
The leakage currents are negligible compared to the
current flowing in the transmission lines and may be
neglected.
RESISTANCE
Important in transmission efficiency evaluation
and economic studies.
Significant effect
Generation of I2R loss in transmission line.
Produces IR-type voltage drop which affect voltage
regulation.
RESISTANCE
The dc resistance of a solid round
conductor at a specified temperature
is
Rdc
l
A
Where :
= conductor resistivity (-m),
RESISTANCE
Conductor resistance is
affected by three factors: Frequency (skin effect)
Spiraling
Temperature
RESISTANCE
Frequency Skin Effect
When ac flows in a conductor, the current
distribution is not uniform over the conductor
cross-sectional area and the current density is
greatest at the surface of the conductor.
This causes the ac resistance to be somewhat
higher than the dc resistance. The behavior is
known as skin effect.
RESISTANCE
The skin effect is where alternating current tends
to avoid travel through the center of a solid
conductor, limiting itself to conduction near the
surface.
This effectively limits the cross-sectional
conductor area available to carry alternating
electron flow, increasing the resistance of that
conductor above what it would normally be for
direct current
RESISTANCE
RESISTANCE
Skin effect correction factor are defined
as
R
RO
Where
R = AC resistance ; and
Ro = DC resistance.
RESISTANCE
Spiraling
For stranded conductors, alternate layers of
strands are spiraled in opposite directions to
hold the strands together.
Spiraling makes the strands 1 2% longer than
the actual conductor length.
DC resistance of a stranded conductor is 1 2%
larger than the calculated value.
RESISTANCE
Temperature
T t2
R2 R1
T t1
Where:
R1 = conductor resistances at t1 in C
R2 = conductor resistances at t2 in C
T = temperature constant (depends on
the conductor material)
RESISTANCE
The conductor resistance is best determined
from manufacturers data.
Some conversion used in calculating line
resistance:1 cmil = 5.067x10-4 mm2
= 5.067x10-6 cm2
= 5.067x10-10 m2
Material
20C
Resistivity at 20C
Temperature Constant
m10-8
cmil/ft
Annealed
1.72
10.37
234.5
Hard-drawn
1.77
10.66
241.5
2.83
17.00
228
6.4 8.4
38 51
480
10
60
180
Silver
1.59
9.6
243
Sodium
4.3
26
207
12 88
72 530
180 980
Copper
Aluminum
Hard-drawn
Brass
Iron
Steel
RESISTANCE
Example 3.1:
A solid cylindrical aluminum conductor 25km long
has an area of 336,400 circular mils. Obtain the
conductor resistance at
(a) 20C and
(b) 50C.
The resistivity of aluminum at 20C is
= 2.8x10-8-m.
RESISTANCE
Answer (a)
- Solution 1:
l 2.8 10 8 m25 10 3 m
RDC 20 C
4.107
10 2
A
336400 5.067 10 m
0
- Solution 2:
d 336400 580 mil 580 2.54 10 3 cm 1.4732 cm
A
d
2
RDC 200 C
l
A
1.4732cm 1.704564cm 2
2
2.8 10
m 25 10 3 m
4.107
4
2
1.704564 10 m
RESISTANCE
Answer (b)
Rdc t2
T t2
Rdc t1
T t1
T 500 C
Rdc 500 C Rdc 200 C
T 200 C
2280 C 500 C
Rdc 500 C 4.107
2280 C 200 C
Rdc 500 C 4.6038
RESISTANCE
Exercise 1
A transmission-line cable consists of 12 identical
strands of aluminum, each 3mm in diameter. The
resistivity of aluminum strand at 20C is 2.8x10-8-m.
Find the 50C ac resistance per km of the cable.
Assume a skin-effect correction factor of 1.02 at
50Hz.
RESISTANCE
RESISTANCE
d 2 NOS
3.53mm2 54 528.485
mm 2
1.015 0.0543
dc 20C
528 .485 10 m
/ km
INDUCTANCE :
A SINGLE CONDUCTOR
A current-carrying conductor produces
a magnetic field around the conductor.
The magnetic flux can be determined
by using the right hand rule.
For nonmagnetic material, the
inductance L is the ratio of its total
magnetic flux linkage to the current I,
given by
L
I
where =flux linkages, in Weber turns.
INDUCTANCE :
A SINGLE CONDUCTOR
For illustrative
example, consider
a long round
conductor with
radius r, carrying
a current I as
shown.
The magnetic
field intensity Hx,
around a circle of
radius x, is
constant and
tangent to the
circle.
Ix
Hx
2 x
INDUCTANCE :
A SINGLE CONDUCTOR
The inductance of the conductor can be defined
as the sum of contributions from flux linkages
internal and external to the conductor.
INDUCTANCE :
A SINGLE CONDUCTOR
INTERNAL INDUCTANCE
Internal inductance can be express as
follows:-
0 1
7
Lint
10 H / m
8 2
Where
o = permeability of air (4 x 10-7 H/m)
The internal inductance is independent of
the conductor radius r
INDUCTANCE :
A SINGLE CONDUCTOR
INDUCTANCE DUE
TO EXTERNAL
FLUX LINKAGE
External
inductance
between to point
D2 and D1 can be
express as
follows:
D2
Lext 2 10 ln
H /m
D1
7
INDUCTANCE :
A SINGLE PHASE LINES
A single phase lines consist of a
single current carrying line with a
return line which is in opposite
direction. This can be illustrated as:
INDUCTANCE :
A SINGLE PHASE LINES
Inductance of a single-phase
lines can be expressed as below
with an assumption that the
radius of r1=r2=r.
1
D2
7
7
L Lint Lext 10 2 10 ln
H /m
2
D1
1
D
D
1
107 2 107 ln
H / m 2 107 ln H / m
2
r
r
4
1
1
D
D
7
2 10 ln e 4 ln H / m 2 10 ln 1 ln H / m
4
e
D
2 10 ln 0.25 H / m
re
7
1
r1e 0.25
2 x107 ln
D
H /m
1
1
D
7
2
x
10
ln
H /m
0.25
r2 e
1
1 L11 L12 I1
2 L21 L22 I 2
r1e 0.25
1 L1 I1 2 x107 ln
L11 2 x107 ln
2 x107 ln
1
r1e 0.25
D
1
D
1
L12 2 x107 ln
D
I1 L11 L12 I1
1
1
L11 2 10 ln 0.25
r1e
7
1
L22 2 10 ln 0.25
r2e
7
1
L12 L21 2 10 ln
D
7
1
1
7
i 2 x10 I i ln 0.25 I j ln
ji
r
e
D
j
1
i
ij
INDUCTANCE :
3-PHASE TRANSMISSION LINES
Symmetrical Spacing
Consider 1 meter length of a three-phase
line with three conductors, each radius r,
symmetrically spaced in a triangular
configuration.
INDUCTANCE :
3-PHASE TRANSMISSION LINES
Assume balance 3-phase current
Ia+ I b+ I c = 0
The total flux linkage of phase a
conductor
1
1
1
a 2 x10 I a ln 0.25 I b ln I c ln
ra e
D
D
a 2 x107 I a ln
1
1
D
7
I
ln
2
x
10
I
ln
a
a
ra e 0.25
D
ra e 0.25
INDUCTANCE :
3-PHASE TRANSMISSION LINES
Because of symmetry, a=b=c
The inductance per phase per
kilometer length
D
L 2 x10 ln 0.25 H / m
I
re
7
INDUCTANCE :
3-PHASE TRANSMISSION LINES
Asymmetrical Spacing
Practical transmission lines cannot maintain
symmetrical spacing of conductors because of
construction considerations.
Consider one meter length of three-phase line with
three conductors, each with radius r. The conductor
are asymmetrically spaced with distances as
shown.
INDUCTANCE :
3-PHASE TRANSMISSION LINES
The flux linkages are:-
1
1
1
a 2 10 I a ln 0.25 I b ln
I c ln
re
D12
D13
1
1
1
b 2 10 I b ln 0.25 I a ln
I c ln
re
D12
D23
1
1
1
c 2 10 I c ln 0.25 I a ln
I b ln
re
D13
D23
INDUCTANCE :
3-PHASE TRANSMISSION LINES
For balanced three-phase current with
Ia as reference, we have:-
I b I a 240 a I a
o
I c I a 120 aI a
o
INDUCTANCE :
3-PHASE TRANSMISSION LINES
Thus La, Lb and Lc can be found
using the following equation:-
a
1
1
1
7
2
La 2 10 ln 0.25 a ln a ln
Ia
D12
D13
re
1
1
1
2
Lb
2 10 a ln
ln 0.25 a ln
Ib
D12
re
D23
2
1
1
1
Lc
2 10 a ln
a ln
ln 0.25
Ic
D13
D23
re
INDUCTANCE :
3-PHASE TRANSMISSION LINES
Transpose Line
Transposition is used to regain symmetry
in good measures and obtain a per-phase
analysis.
INDUCTANCE :
3-PHASE TRANSMISSION LINES
This consists of interchanging the phase
configuration every one-third the length so
that each conductor is moved to occupy the
next physical position in a regular sequence.
Transposition arrangement are shown in the
figure
INDUCTANCE :
3-PHASE TRANSMISSION LINES
Since in a transposed line each phase takes all
three positions, the inductance per phase can be
obtained by finding the average value.
La Lb Lc
La
3
Noting a + a2 = -1
2 107
L
3
1
1
1
1
3 ln 0.25 ln
ln
ln
re
D12
D23
D13
1
1
7
2 10 ln 0.25 ln
1
re
D12 D23 D13 3
2 10
1
3
re 0.25
Inductance of Composite
Conductors
In evaluation of inductance, solid round
conductors were considered. However, in
practical transmission lines, stranded
conductors are used.
Consider a single-phase line consisting of
two composite conductors x and y as shown
in Figure 1. The current in x is I referenced
into the page, and the return in y is I.
Inductance of Composite
Conductors
Conductor x consist of n identical strands or
subconductors, each with radius rx.
Conductor y consist of m identical strands or
subconductors, each with radius ry.
The current is assumed to be equally divided
amon the subconductors. The current per
strands is I/n in x and I/m in y.
Inductance of Composite
Conductors
c
c'
b'
d'
a'
m'
I 1
1
1
1
ln ln
a 2 10
ln
. . . ln
n rx '
Dab
Dac
Dan
7
I
1
1
1
1
ln
2 10
ln
ln
. . . ln
m Daa '
Dab '
Dac '
Dam
or
7
a 2 10 I ln
7
m D D D ...D
a
aa ' ab ' ac '
am
7
La
2n 10 ln
n r ' D D ...D
I /n
x
ab ac
an
m D D D ...D
n
na ' nb ' nc '
nm
7
Ln
2n 10 ln
n r ' D D ...D
I /n
x
na nb
nc
GMD
Lx 2 10 ln
H /m
GMRx
7
where
GMD mn ( Daa ' Dab ' ...Dam )...(Dna ' Dnb ' ...Dnm )
GMRx n ( Daa Dab ...Dan )...(Dna Dnb ...Dnn )
2
where
Daa Dbb ... Dnn rx '
d
d
d
d
Ds d
S11
c2
S22
b1
b2
S33
c1
a2
D bs Da1a 2
DSB 4 ( D bs Db1b 2 ) 2
D bs Db1b 2
DSC 4 ( D bs Dc1c 2 ) 2
D bs Dc1c 2
b
D
where s is the geometric mean radius of
bundled conductors.
GMD
ln
H /m
GMR L
INDUCTANCE :
3-PHASE TRANSMISSION LINES
Question 4
A three-phase, 50 Hz transmission line has a
reactance 0.5 per kilometer. The conductor
geometric mean radius is 2 cm. Determine the
phase spacing D in meter.
CAPACITANCE
Transmission line conductors
exhibit capacitance with respect
to each other due to the potential
difference between them.
The amount of capacitance
between conductors is a function
of conductor size, spacing, and
height above ground.
Capacitance C is:-
q
C
V
LINE CAPACITANCE
Consider a long
round conductor
with radius r,
carrying a
charge of q
coulombs per
meter length as
shown.
The electrical
flux density at a
cylinder of radius
x is given by:
q
q
D
A 2 x
LINE CAPACITANCE
The electric field intensity E is:-
q
2 0 x
D2
V12
ln
2 0 D1
The notation V12 implies the voltage drop from 1
relative to 2.
D
V12
ln
F /m
0 r
C12
0
D
ln
r
F /m
2 0
C
F /m
D
ln
r
Potential Difference in a
Multiconductor configuration
Consider n parallel long conductors
with charges q1, q2,,qn
coulombs/meter as shown below.
Potential difference between conductor
i and j due to the presence of all
charges is
Vij
1
2 0
q
k 1
ln
q2
Dkj
q3
Dki
q1
qn
qi
qj
CAPACITANCE OF THREE-PHASE
LINES
Consider one meter length of 3-phase
line with three long conductors, each
with radius r, with conductor spacing
as shown below:
qa
D12
D13
qb
D23
qc
qa
C
Van
2 o
ln
1/ 3
F/m
0.0556
D12 D23 D13
ln
1/ 3
F/km
Effect of bundling
2 0
C
GMD
ln
rb
F /m
Effect of bundling
If d is the bundle spacing, we obtain for
the two-subconductor bundle
rb
rd
F /m
r b Da1a 2
rB
r b Db1b 2
rC
r b Dc1c 2
GMRC 3 rArB rC
ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION
Transmission line electric fields affect
objects in the proximity of the line.
It produced by high voltage in the
lines.
Electric field induces current in
objects which are in the area of the
electric fields.
The effect of electric fields becomes
more concern at higher voltages.
ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION
Primary cause of induction to vehicles,
buildings, and object of comparable
size.
Human body is effected to electric
discharges from charged objects in the
field of the line.
The current densities in human cause
by electric fields of transmission lines
are much higher than those induced by
magnetic fields!
CORONA
When surface potential gradient exceeds the
dielectric strength of surrounding air, ionization
occurs in the area close to conductor surface.
This partial ionization is known as corona.
Corona generated by atmospheric conditions
(i.e. air density, humidity, wind)
CORONA
Corona produces power loss and audible noise
(Ex: radio interference).
Corona can be reduced by:
Increase the conductor size.
Use of conductor bundling.
INDUCTANCE :
3-PHASE TRANSMISSION LINES