Chapter 2

BASIC ENERGY CONCEPT,

ENERGY TRANSFER,
AND GENERAL ENERGY
ANALYSIS

FORMS OF ENERGY

Energy exists in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic,

potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and their sum
constitutes the total energy, E of a system.
Macroscopic forms of energy: possesses by a system as a whole
with respect to some outside reference frame, eg. KE & PE.
Microscopic forms of energy: related to the molecular structure of a
system and the degree of the molecular activity.
Internal energy, U: The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy.
Kinetic energy, KE: The energy
that a system possesses as a result
of its motion relative to some
reference frame.
Potential energy, PE: The energy
that a system possesses as a result
of its elevation in a gravitational
field.

The macroscopic energy of an

object changes with velocity and
elevation.

Some Physical Insight to Internal

Energy Sensible energy: IE
associated with the KE of the
molecules.
Latent energy: IE associated
with the phase of a system.
Chemical energy: IE
associated with the atomic
bonds in a molecule.
Nuclear energy: IE associated
with the strong bonds within the
nucleus of the atom itself.

The internal energy of a

system is the sum of all forms
of the microscopic energies.
The various forms of
microscopic
energies that make
up sensible energy.

Thermal = Sensible + Latent

Internal = Sensible + Latent + Chemical + Nuclear

Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy
per unit mass
Potential energy
Potential energy
per unit mass

Mass flow rate

Energy flow rate

Total energy
of a system
Energy of a system
per unit mass
Total energy
per unit mass

Mechanical Energy
Mechanical energy: The form of energy that can be converted to
mechanical work completely and directly by an ideal mechanical device such
as an ideal turbine.
KE & PE: The familiar forms of mechanical energy.
Mechanical energy of a
flowing fluid per unit mass
Rate of mechanical
energy of a flowing fluid
Mechanical energy change of a fluid during incompressible flow per unit mass

Rate of mechanical energy change of a fluid during incompressible flow

ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT

Heat: The form of energy that is transferred between two systems
(or a system and its surroundings) by virtue of a temperature
difference.
Temperature difference is the driving force for heat transfer. The larger the
temperature difference, the higher is the rate of heat transfer.

Heat transfer
per unit mass
Amount of heat transfer
when heat transfer rate
is constant
Amount of heat transfer
when heat transfer rate
changes with time

Energy can cross the

boundaries of a closed system
in the form of heat and work.

Historical Background on Heat

Heat transfer mechanisms:
Conduction: The transfer of
energy from the more
energetic particles of a
substance to the adjacent less
energetic ones as a result of
interaction between particles.
Convection: The transfer of
energy between a solid
surface and the adjacent fluid
that is in motion, and it
involves the combined effects
of conduction and fluid motion.
Radiation: The transfer of
energy due to the emission of
electromagnetic waves (or
photons).

In the early nineteenth century, heat was

thought to be an invisible fluid called the
caloric that flowed from warmer bodies to
the cooler ones.

ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK

Work: The energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance.
A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire crossing the
system boundaries are all associated with work interactions
Formal sign convention: Heat transfer to a system and work done by a
system are positive; heat transfer from a system and work done on a system
are negative.
Alternative to sign convention is to use the subscripts in and out to indicate
direction.
Work done
per unit mass

Power is the
work done per
unit time (kW)

Specifying the directions

of heat and work.

THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The first law of thermodynamics (the conservation of energy

principle) provides the relationships among the various forms of energy
and energy interactions.
The first law states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed
during a process; it can only change forms.
The First Law: For all adiabatic processes between two specified states of
a closed system, the net work done is the same regardless of the nature of
the closed system and the details of the process.

The increase in the energy of a

potato in an oven is equal to the
amount of heat transferred to it.

Energy Balance
The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the system
during a process is equal to the difference between the total energy
entering and the total energy leaving the system during that process.

The energy change

of a system during
a process is equal
to the net work and
heat transfer
between the
system and its
surroundings.

Energy Change of a System, Esystem

Internal, kinetic, and

potential energy changes

Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout

Heat transfer
Work transfer
Mass flow

(kJ)

A closed mass
involves only
heat transfer
and work.

For a cycle E = 0,
thus Q = W.
The energy
content of a
control volume
can be changed
by mass flow as
well as heat and
work interactions.

ENERGY CONVERSION EFFICIENCIES

Efficiency indicates how well an energy conversion or transfer process is
accomplished.

Efficiency of a water
heater: The ratio of the
energy delivered to the
house by hot water to
the energy supplied to
the water heater.

Heating value of the fuel: The amount of heat released when a unit
amount of fuel at room temperature is completely burned and the
combustion products are cooled to the room temperature.
Lower heating value (LHV): When the water leaves as a vapor.
Higher heating value (HHV): When the water in the combustion gases is
completely condensed and thus the heat of vaporization is also recovered.

The definition of the heating value of

gasoline.

 Generator: A device that converts mechanical energy to electrical

energy.
Generator efficiency: The ratio of the electrical power output to the
mechanical power input.
Thermal efficiency of a power plant: The ratio of the net electrical
power output to the rate of fuel energy input.
Overall efficiency
of a power plant

Using energy-efficient appliances conserve

energy.
helps the environment by reducing the amount
of pollutants emitted to the atmosphere during
the combustion of fuel.
The combustion of fuel produces
carbon dioxide, causes global warming
nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons, cause
smog
carbon monoxide, toxic
sulfur dioxide, causes acid rain.

A 15-W compact fluorescent lamp

provides as much light as a 60-W
incandescent lamp.

Efficiencies of Mechanical and Electrical Devices

Mechanical efficiency

The effectiveness of the conversion process between

the mechanical work supplied or extracted and the
mechanical energy of the fluid is expressed by the
pump efficiency and turbine efficiency,

The mechanical
efficiency of a fan is the
ratio of the kinetic
energy of air at the fan
exit to the mechanical
power input.

Pump
efficiency
Generator
efficiency
Pump-Motor
overall efficiency
Turbine-Generator
overall efficiency

The overall efficiency of a turbinegenerator

is the product of the efficiency of the turbine
and the efficiency of the generator, and
represents the fraction of the mechanical
energy of the fluid converted to electric
energy.

ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT

Energy conversion processes are often accompanied by environmental
pollution
Pollutants emitted during the combustion of fossil fuels are responsible
for smog, acid rain, and global warming.
The environmental pollution became a serious threat to vegetation,
wild life, and human health.

Motor vehicles are the largest source of air

pollution.

Ozone and Smog

Smog: Made up mostly of ground-level ozone (O3), but it also contains numerous other
chemicals, including carbon monoxide (CO), particulate matter such as soot and dust,
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as benzene, butane, and other hydrocarbons.
Hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides react in the presence of sunlight on hot calm days to
form ground-level ozone.
Ozone irritates eyes and damages the air sacs in the lungs where oxygen and carbon
dioxide are exchanged, causing eventual hardening of this soft and spongy tissue.
It also causes shortness of breath, wheezing, fatigue, headaches, and nausea, and
aggravates respiratory problems such as asthma.

The other serious pollutant in smog is carbon

monoxide, which is a colorless, odorless, poisonous
gas.
It is mostly emitted by motor vehicles.
It deprives the bodys organs from getting enough
oxygen by binding with the red blood cells that would
otherwise carry oxygen. It is fatal at high levels.
Suspended particulate matter such as dust and soot
are emitted by vehicles and industrial facilities. Such
particles irritate the eyes and the lungs.

Ground-level ozone, which is the primary component

of smog, forms when HC and NOx react in the
presence of sunlight in hot calm days.

Acid Rain
The sulfur in the fuel reacts with oxygen to form sulfur dioxide (SO2), which is an
air pollutant.
The main source of SO2 is the electric power plants that burn high-sulfur coal.
Motor vehicles also contribute to SO2 emissions since gasoline and diesel fuel
also contain small amounts of sulfur.

The sulfur oxides and nitric oxides react

with water vapor and other chemicals high
in the atmosphere in the presence of
sunlight to form sulfuric and nitric acids.
The acids formed usually dissolve in the
suspended water droplets in clouds or
fog.
These acid-laden droplets, which can be
as acidic as lemon juice, are washed from
the air on to the soil by rain or snow. This
is known as acid rain.

Sulfuric acid and nitric acid are formed

when sulfur oxides and nitric oxides react with
water vapor and other chemicals high in the
atmosphere in the presence of sunlight.

The Greenhouse
Effect: Global
Warming

The greenhouse effect on earth.

Greenhouse effect: Glass allows the solar

radiation to enter freely but blocks the
infrared radiation emitted by the interior
surfaces. This causes a rise in the interior
temperature as a result of the thermal
energy buildup in a space (i.e., car).
The surface of the earth, which warms up
during the day as a result of the absorption
of solar energy, cools down at night by
radiating part of its energy into deep space
as infrared radiation.
Carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapor, and
trace amounts of some other gases such
as methane and nitrogen oxides act like a
blanket and keep the earth warm at night
by blocking the heat radiated from the
earth. The result is global warming.
These gases are called greenhouse
gases, with CO2 being the primary
component.
CO2 is produced by the burning of fossil
fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas.

A rise of this magnitude can cause severe changes in weather patterns

with storms and heavy rains and flooding at some parts and drought in
others, major floods due to the melting of ice at the poles, loss of wetlands
and coastal areas due to rising sea levels, and other negative results.

Improved energy efficiency, energy conservation, and using

renewable energy sources help minimize global warming.

THE SECOND LAW OF

THERMODYNAMICS

MAJOR USES OF THE SECOND LAW

used to identify the direction of processes.

second law asserts that energy has quality
as well as quantity.
The second law provides the necessary
means to determine the quality as well as
the degree of degradation of energy during
a process.
also used in determining the theoretical
limits for the performance of commonly
used engineering systems, such as heat
engines and refrigerators etc.

A cup of hot coffee

does not get hotter in
a cooler room.

THERMAL ENERGY RESERVOIRS

Bodies with relatively large thermal

masses can be modeled as thermal
energy reservoirs.

A source
supplies
energy in the
form of heat,
and a sink
absorbs it.

A hypothetical body with large thermal energy capacity (mass x specific heat)
that can supply or absorb finite amounts of heat without undergoing any
change in temperature is called a thermal energy reservoir
Eg. oceans, lakes, and rivers as well as the atmospheric air

HEAT ENGINES
The devices that convert heat to work.
Work can always
be converted to
heat directly and
completely, but the
reverse is not true.

Part of the heat

received by a heat
engine is
converted to work,
while the rest is
rejected to a sink.

1. receive heat from a high-T source

(solar energy, oil furnace, nuclear
reactor, etc.).
2. convert part of this heat to work (in
the form of a rotating shaft.)
3. reject the remaining waste heat to a
low-T sink (the atmosphere, rivers,
etc.).
4. They operate on a cycle.
Heat engines and other cyclic devices
usually involve a fluid to and from
which heat is transferred while
undergoing a cycle. This fluid is
called the working fluid.

A steam power plant

A portion of the work output

of a heat engine is consumed
internally to maintain
continuous operation.

Thermal efficiency

Schematic of
a heat engine.
Some heat engines perform better
than others (convert more of the
heat they receive to work).

Can we save Qout?

A heat-engine cycle cannot be completed without rejecting some heat to a
low-temperature sink.

In a steam power plant, the condenser is the device where large quantities
of waste heat is rejected to rivers, lakes, or the atmosphere.

Can we not just take the condenser out of the plant and save all that waste
energy?

no for the simple reason that without a heat rejection process in a

condenser, the cycle cannot be completed.

The Second Law of

Thermodynamics:
KelvinPlanck Statement
It is impossible for any device
that operates on a cycle to
receive heat from a single
reservoir and produce a net
amount of work.
No heat engine can have a thermal
efficiency of 100 percent, or as for a
power plant to operate, the working fluid
must exchange heat with the
environment as well as the furnace.
The impossibility of having a 100%
efficient heat engine is not due to
friction or other dissipative effects. It is a
limitation that applies to both the
idealized and the actual heat engines.

A heat engine that violates the

KelvinPlanck statement of the
second law.

THE
CARNOT
CYCLE

Execution of
the Carnot
cycle in a
closed
system.
Reversible Isothermal Expansion (process 1-2, TH = constant)
Reversible Adiabatic Expansion (process 2-3, temperature drops from TH to TL)
Reversible Isothermal Compression (process 3-4, TL = constant)
Reversible Adiabatic Compression (process 4-1, temperature rises from TL to TH)

P-V diagram of the Carnot cycle.

P-V diagram of the reversed

Carnot cycle.

The Reversed Carnot Cycle

The Carnot heat-engine cycle is a totally reversible cycle.
Therefore, all the processes that comprise it can be reversed,
in which case it becomes the Carnot refrigeration cycle.

THE CARNOT
PRINCIPLES

The Carnot principles.

1. The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than the

efficiency of a reversible one operating between the same two
reservoirs.
2. The efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating between the
same two reservoirs are the same.

THE CARNOT HEAT ENGINE

The Carnot
heat engine
is the most
efficient of
all heat
engines
operating
between the
same highand lowtemperature
reservoirs.

Any heat
engine

Carnot heat
engine

No heat engine can have a higher

efficiency than a reversible heat engine
operating between the same high- and
low-temperature reservoirs.

The Quality of Energy

The higher the temperature

of the thermal energy, the
higher its quality.
The fraction of heat that
can be converted to work
as a function of source
temperature.

How do you increase the

thermal efficiency of a Carnot
heat engine? How about for
actual heat engines?

Entropy
Entropy is a thermodynamic property that is a
measure of the energy not available for useful work in
a thermodynamic process, such as in energy
conversion devices, engines, or machines.
Entropy of a closed system always
increases.
It determines that thermal energy always flows
spontaneously from regions of higher temperature
to regions of lower temperature, in the form of heat.
Entropy is an expression of disorder or
randomness.
Thermodynamic entropy has the dimension of energy divided
by temperature, and a unit of joules per kelvin (J/K)
S = Q/T (J/K)
In the context of thermodynamics, it is a measure of the amount of energy
in a physical system that cannot be used to do work.

THE CARNOT VAPOR CYCLE

The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle operating between two specified temperature
limits but it is not a suitable model for power cycles. Because:
Process 1-2 Limiting the heat transfer processes to two-phase systems severely limits the
maximum temperature that can be used in the cycle (374C for water)
Process 2-3 The turbine cannot handle steam with a high moisture content because of the
impingement of liquid droplets on the turbine blades causing erosion and wear.
Process 4-1 It is not practical to design a compressor that handles two phases.
The cycle in (b) is not suitable since it requires isentropic compression to
extremely high pressures and isothermal heat transfer at variable pressures.

1-2 isothermal heat

addition in a boiler
2-3 isentropic expansion
in a turbine
3-4 isothermal heat
rejection in a condenser
4-1 isentropic
compression in a
compressor
T-s diagram of two Carnot vapor cycles.

RANKINE CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE

FOR VAPOR POWER CYCLES
Solutions : superheating the steam in the boiler and condensing it completely in
the condenser. Rankine cycle, which is the ideal cycle for vapor power plants.

The simple ideal Rankine cycle.

Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle

Steady-flow energy equation

The efficiency of power plants in

the U.S. is often expressed in
terms of heat rate, which is the
amount of heat supplied, in Btus,
to generate 1 kWh of electricity.

The thermal efficiency can be interpreted

as the ratio of the area enclosed by the
cycle on a T-s diagram to the area under
the heat-addition process.

HOW CAN WE INCREASE THE EFFICIENCY OF THE

RANKINE CYCLE?
Idea : Increase the average temperature at which heat is transferred to the
working fluid in the boiler, or decrease the average temperature at which heat is
rejected from the working fluid in the condenser.

Lowering the Condenser Pressure (Lowers Tlow,avg)

condensers of steam power plants usually
operate well below the atmospheric pressure.
lower limit to this pressure depending on the
temperature of the cooling medium
Side effect: Lowering the condenser
pressure increases the moisture content of
the steam at the final stages of the turbine.

Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures

(Increases Thigh,avg)
The overall effect is an increase in
thermal efficiency since the average
temperature at which heat is added
increases.
Superheating to higher temperatures
decreases the moisture content of the
steam at the turbine exit, which is
desirable.
The temperature is limited by
metallurgical considerations. Presently
the highest steam temperature allowed
at the turbine inlet is about 620C.

Increasing the Boiler Pressure (Increases Thigh,avg)

For a fixed turbine inlet temperature,
the cycle shifts to the left and the
moisture content of steam at the
turbine exit increases. This side
effect can be corrected by reheating
the steam.

Today many modern steam power

plants operate at supercritical
pressures (P > 22.06 MPa) and
have thermal efficiencies of about
40% for fossil-fuel plants and 34%
for nuclear plants.

A supercritical Rankine cycle.

THE IDEAL REHEAT RANKINE CYCLE

How can we take advantage of the increased efficiencies at higher boiler pressures
without facing the problem of excessive moisture at the final stages of the turbine?
1. Superheat the steam to very high temperatures. It is limited metallurgically.
2. Expand the steam in the turbine in two stages, and reheat it in between (reheat)

The ideal reheat Rankine cycle.

The single reheat in a modern power

plant improves the cycle efficiency by 4 to
5% by increasing the average
temperature at which heat is transferred
to the steam.
The average temperature during the
reheat process can be increased by
increasing the number of expansion and
reheat stages. As the number of stages is
increased, the expansion and reheat
processes approach an isothermal
process at the maximum temperature.
The use of more than two reheat stages
is not practical. The theoretical
improvement in efficiency from the
second reheat is about half of that which The average temperature at
which heat is transferred during
results from a single reheat.
reheating increases as the
The reheat temperatures are very close
number of reheat stages is
or equal to the turbine inlet temperature.
increased.
The optimum reheat pressure is about
one-fourth of the maximum cycle
pressure.