The Respiratory System

Functions
Surface area for gaseous exchange
Moving air between gas exchange
surfaces and environment
Protection of respiratory surfaces
Sound production
Facilitates detection of olfactory stimuli

The Respiratory System

Upper

Nose
Nasal cavity
Paranasal sinuses
Pharynx

Lower

Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
Bronchioles
alveoli

The Respiratory Mucosa

Mucous membrane of epithelium and
areolar tissue
Upper tract, trachea & bronchi
pseudostratified ciliated columnar
Small Bronchioles simple cuboidal with
scattered cilia
Alveoli simple squamous

The Trachea

The Trachea

12.5 cm long; 2.5 cm diameter

Anterior to esophagus
Lined by C-shaped cartilage rings
Smooth muscle between cartilage rings

The Bronchial Tree

The Lungs

The Lungs

Components of the Respiratory

System

Figure 232b, c The Respiratory Epithelium of the Nasal Cavity and

Conducting System.

Bronchioles

Bronchioles
Tertiary bronchi branch into bronchioles
Bronchioles into terminal bronchioles
Terminal bronchioles into respiratory
bronchioles
Respiratory bronchioles into alveolar ducts

Bronchioles
Terminal bronchioles smooth muscle;
simple cuboidal epithelium; no goblet cells
Respiratory Bronchioles simple cuboidal
epithelium with scattered cilia; no goblet
cells; elastic fibres

The Lungs

Figure 239 The Bronchi and Lobules of the Lung.

Bronchioles

Alveolar Epithelium

The Lungs

Figure 2310 Respiratory Tissue.

Respiratory Membrane

Pleural Membranes

Pulmonary Ventilation
Physical movement of air into and out of
the respiratory tract
Important Factors:
Atmospheric pressure (760mmHg) exerted on
all objects
Boyles Law ( P = 1/V)
Air moves from high to low pressure

Quiet Breathing
Inhalation
Diaphragm contracts and flattens
External intercostal muscles contract. Pulling
ribcage upward and outward
Thoracic cavity volume increases
Lung volume increases
Intra-pulmonary pressure decreases to 759
mmHg
Air moves into lungs from the atmosphere

Quiet Breathing
Exhalation
Diaphragm relaxes and becomes domeshaped
External intercostal muscles relax causing the
rib cage to move downward and inward
Thoracic and lung volumes decrease
Intrapulmonary pressure increases to 761
mmHg
Air flows out of lungs

Pulmonary Ventilation

Figure 2314 Mechanisms of Pulmonary Ventilation.

Forced Breathing
Involves the use of Accessory muscles

Forced Breathing

Pulmonary Ventilation

Figure 2316a, b The Respiratory Muscles.

Pulmonary Ventilation

Muscles of Active Exhalation

Internal intercostal and transversus
thoracis muscles

Depress the ribs

Abdominal muscles

Compress the abdomen

Force diaphragm upward

Pulmonary Ventilation

Figure 2316c, d The Respiratory Muscles.

Lung Volumes and Capacities

Description

Average
Value

Tidal volume (TV)

Volume of air entering or leaving lungs

during a single breath

500 ml

Inspiratory reserve
volume (IRV)

Extra volume of air that can be maximally

inspired over and above the typical resting
tidal volume

3000 ml

Inspiratory capacity
(IC)

Maximum volume of air that can be

inspired at the end of a normal quiet
expiration
(IC =IRV + IV)

3500 ml

Expiratory reserve
volume (ERV)

Extra volume of air that can be actively

expired by maximal contraction beyond the
normal volume of air after a resting tidal
volume

1000 ml

Residual volume
(RV)

Minimum volume of air remaining in the

lungs even after a maximal expiration

1200 ml

Chapter 13 The Respiratory

System

Lung Volumes and Capacities

Description

Average Value

Functional residual
capacity (FRC)

Volume of air in lungs at end of

normal passive expiration
(FRC = ERV + RV)

2200 ml

Vital capacity (VC)

Maximum volume of air that can

be moved out during a single
breath following a maximal
inspiration (VC = IRV + TV + ERV)

4500 ml

Total lung capacity (TLC) Maximum volume of air that the

lungs can hold (TLC = VC + RV)

Forced expiratory
volume in one second
(FEV1)

Volume of air that can be expired

during the first second of
expiration in a VC determination

Chapter 13 The Respiratory

System

5700 ml

Variations in Lung Volume

Chapter 13 The
Respiratory System

Respiratory Dysfunction
Two general categories of dysfunction that
yield abnormal results during spirometry
Destructive lung disease
Restrictive lung disease

Additional conditions affecting respiratory

function
Diseases affecting diffusion of O2 and CO2
across pulmonary membranes
Reduced ventilation due to mechanical failure
Failure of adequate pulmonary blood flow
Chapter 13 The
Ventilation/perfusion
abnormalities involving a
Respiratory
System

Abnormal Spirograms Associated with Obstructive and

Restrictive Lung Diseases

Chapter 13 The
Respiratory System

Pulmonary Ventilation
Minute ventilation
Volume of air breathed in and out in one
minute
Pulmonary ventilation = tidal volume x respiratory rate
(ml/min)

Chapter 13 The
Respiratory System

(ml/breath)

(breaths/min)

Alveolar Ventilation
More important than pulmonary ventilation
Volume of air exchanged between the
atmosphere and the alveoli per minute
Less than pulmonary ventilation due to
anatomic dead space
Volume of air in conducting airways that is
useless for exchange
Averages about 150 ml in adults
Chapter 13 The
Respiratory System

Alveolar ventilation = (tidal volume dead space) x

Effect of Different Breathing Patterns on

Alveolar Ventilation

Chapter 13 The
Respiratory System

Alveolar Ventilation
Alveolar dead space
Quite small and of little importance in healthy
people
Can increase even to lethal levels in several
types of pulmonary disease

Local controls act on smooth muscle of

airways and arterioles to match airflow to
blood flow
Accumulation of carbon dioxide in alveoli
decreases airway resistance leading to
increased airflow
Chapter 13 The
Respiratory System
Increase in alveolar oxygen concentration

Gas Exchange
At both pulmonary capillary and tissue
capillary levels, gas exchange involves
simple diffusion of O2 and CO2 down
partial pressure gradients
Partial pressure exerted
by each gas in a mixture
equals the total pressure
times the fractional
composition of this gas
Chapter
13
The mixture
in
the
Respiratory System

Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Exchange Across Pulmonary and

Systemic Capillaries Caused by Partial Pressure Gradients

Chapter 13 The
Respiratory System

Oxygen Transport
1.5 % in plasma
98.5% attached to Haemoglobin

Haemoglobin Saturation
Percent haem units containing bound O2

Haemoglobin Saturation
Hb is a protein and changes shape in
different environmental conditions
Partial pressure of Oxygen
pH of blood
Temperature
Ongoing metabolic activity of RBCs

Gas Transport
OxygenHemoglobin Saturation Curve
Is a graph relating the saturation of hemoglobin to
partial pressure of oxygen
Higher PO results in greater Hb saturation
2

Is a curve rather than a straight line

Because Hb changes shape each time a molecule of O2 is
bound

Each O2 bound makes next O2 binding easier

Allows Hb to bind O2 when O2 levels are low

Gas Transport
Most oxygen in the blood is transported
bound to hemoglobin.
Hb + O2 HbO2
(reduced hemoglobin or

deoxyhemoglobin)

Chapter 13 The
Respiratory System

(oxyhemoglobin)

Gas Transport
Hemoglobin combines with oxygen to form
oxyhemoglobin. This is a reversible
process, favored to form oxyhemoglobin in
the lungs.
Hemoglobin tends to combine with oxygen
as oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the
pulmonary capillaries.
A small percentage of oxygen is dissolved
in the plasma.
The dissociation of oxyhemoglobin into
Chapter 13 The
hemoglobin
and free molecules of oxygen
Respiratory
System

Gas Transport
Partial pressure of oxygen is main factor determining the percent
of hemoglobin saturation
The percent saturation is high where the partial pressure of
oxygen is high (lungs).
The percent saturation is low where the partial pressure of
oxygen is low (tissue cells). At the tissue cells oxygen tends
to dissociate from hemoglobin, the opposite of saturation.
This relationship is shown in the oxygen-hemoglobin
dissociation curve.
The plateau part of the curve is where the partial pressure of
oxygen is high (lungs).
The steep part of the curve exists at the systemic capillaries,
where hemoglobin unloads oxygen to the tissue cells.
Chapter 13 The
Respiratory System

Oxygen Hemoglobin
Dissociation Curve

Chapter 13 The
Respiratory System

Haemoglobin Saturation Curve

(pH 7.4, Temp 37oC)

Haemoglobin Saturation Curve

Carbon Dioxide Transport

Gas Transport
Hemoglobin promotes the net transfer of oxygen at both the alveolar and tissue levels.

There is a net diffusion of oxygen from the alveoli to the blood. This
occurs continuously until hemoglobin is as saturated as possible
(97.5% at 100 mm of Hg).
At the tissue cells hemoglobin rapidly delivers oxygen into the blood
plasma and on to the tissue cells. Various factors promote this
unloading.
An increase in carbon dioxide from the tissue cells into the
systemic capillaries increased hemoglobin dissociation from
oxygen (shifts the dissociation curve to the right).
Increased acidity has the same effect.
This shift of the curve to the right (more dissociation) is called the
Bohr effect.
Higher temperatures also produces this shift, as does the production
of BPG (2, 3 biphoshoglycerate).
Hemoglobin has more affinity for carbon monoxide compared to
oxygen.
Chapter 13 The
Respiratory System

Gas Transport
Most carbon dioxide (about 60%) is transported as the bicarbonate ion.

Carbon dioxide combines with water to form carbonic acid. The

enzyme carbonic anhydrase facilitates this in the erythrocyte.
Carbonic acid dissociates into hydrogen ions and the bicarbonate

ion.
This two-step, reversible process is favored at the tissue cells. The
reverse of this process (bicarbonate ions forming free molecules of

carbon dioxide) occurs in the lungs.

30% of the carbon dioxide is bound to hemoglobin in the blood. This
is another means of transport.

Chapter 13 The
Respiratory System

About 10% of the transported carbon dioxide is dissolved in the

Abnormalities in Arterial PO2

Hypoxia
Condition of having insufficient O2 at the
cell level
Categories
Hypoxic hypoxia
Anemic hypoxia
Circulatory hypoxia
Histotoxic hypoxia

Hyperoxia
condition
of having an above-normal
Chapter
13 The
Respiratory System

Abnormalities in Arterial PCO2

Hypercapnia
Condition of having excess CO2 in arterial
blood
Caused by hypoventilation

Hypocapnia
Below-normal arterial PCO2 levels
Brought about by hyperventilation which can
be triggered by
Anxiety states
Chapter 13
TheFever
Respiratory System

Control of Respiration
Respiratory centers in brain stem establish a rhythmic
breathing pattern
Medullary respiratory center
Dorsal respiratory group (DRG)
Mostly inspiratory neurons

Ventral respiratory group (VRG)

Inspiratory neurons
Expiratory neurons

Pre-Btzinger complex
Widely believed to generate respiratory rhythm

Pneumotaxic center
Sends impulses to DRG that help switch off inspiratory
neurons
Chapter 13 The
Dominates over apneustic center
Respiratory System

Control of Respiration
Apneustic center
Prevents inspiratory neurons from being switched
off
Provides extra boost to inspiratory drive

Hering-Breuer reflex
Triggered to prevent overinflation of the lungs

Chemical factors that play role in determining

magnitude of ventilation
PO2
PCO2
+
Chapter 13
TheH
Respiratory System

Control of Respiration

Chapter 13 The
Respiratory System

Peripheral Chemoreceptors
Carotid bodies are located in the carotid
sinus
Aortic bodies are located in the aortic arch

Chapter 13 The
Respiratory System

Factors That May Increase Ventilation During

Exercise

Reflexes originating from body movement

Increase in body temperature
Epinephrine release
Impulses from the cerebral cortex

Chapter 13 The
Respiratory System

Factors That Influence Ventilation That Are

Unrelated to Need for Gas Exchange

Protective reflexes such as sneezing and

coughing
Inhalation of noxious agents which can
trigger immediate cessation of breathing
Pain originating anywhere in body reflexly
stimulates respiratory center
Involuntary modification of breathing
occurs during expression of various
emotional states
Chapter
Respiratory
center is reflexly inhibited
13 The
Respiratory System
during swallowing

Gas Transport
Oxygen Transport
O2 binds to iron ions in hemoglobin (Hb)
molecules
In a reversible reaction

Each RBC has about 280 million Hb

molecules
Each binds four oxygen molecules

Gas Transport
Hemoglobin Saturation
The percentage of heme units in a
hemoglobin molecule
That contain bound oxygen

Gas Transport

Environmental Factors Affecting Hemoglobin

PO of blood
2
Blood pH
Temperature
Metabolic activity within RBCs

Gas Transport
OxygenHemoglobin Saturation Curve
Is a graph relating the saturation of hemoglobin to
partial pressure of oxygen
Higher PO results in greater Hb saturation
2

Is a curve rather than a straight line

Because Hb changes shape each time a molecule of O2 is
bound

Each O2 bound makes next O2 binding easier

Allows Hb to bind O2 when O2 levels are low

Gas Transport
Oxygen Reserves
O2 diffuses
From peripheral capillaries (high PO )
2
Into interstitial fluid (low PO )
2

Amount of O2 released depends on interstitial

PO
2
Up to 3/4 may be reserved by RBCs

Gas Transport
Carbon Monoxide
CO from burning fuels
Binds strongly to hemoglobin
Takes the place of O2
Can result in carbon monoxide poisoning

Gas Transport
The OxygenHemoglobin Saturation Curve
Is standardized for normal blood (pH 7.4, 37C)
When pH drops or temperature rises
More oxygen is released
Curve shifts to right

When pH rises or temperature drops

Less oxygen is released
Curve shifts to left

Gas Transport

Figure 2320 An OxygenHemoglobin Saturation Curve.

Gas Transport
The Bohr Effect
Is the effect of pH on hemoglobin-saturation curve
Caused by CO2
CO2 diffuses into RBC
An enzyme, called carbonic anhydrase, catalyzes reaction
with H2O
Produces carbonic acid (H2CO3)

Carbonic acid (H2CO3)

Dissociates into hydrogen ion (H+) and bicarbonate ion
(HCO3-)

Hydrogen ions diffuse out of RBC, lowering pH

Gas Transport

Figure 2321 The Effects of pH and Temperature on Hemoglobin

Saturation.

Gas Transport
2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (BPG)
RBCs generate ATP by glycolysis
Forming lactic acid and BPG

BPG directly affects O2 binding and release

More BPG, more oxygen released

Gas Transport
BPG Levels
BPG levels rise
When pH increases
When stimulated by certain hormones

If BPG levels are too low

Hemoglobin will not release oxygen

Gas Transport
Fetal and Adult Hemoglobin
The structure of fetal hemoglobin
Differs from that of adult Hb

At the same PO

Fetal Hb binds more O2 than adult Hb

Which allows fetus to take O2 from maternal blood

Gas Transport

Figure 2322 A Functional Comparison of Fetal and Adult Hemoglobin.

Gas Transport
Carbon Dioxide Transport (CO2)
Is generated as a by-product of aerobic metabolism
(cellular respiration)
CO2 in the bloodstream
May be:
converted to carbonic acid
bound to protein portion of hemoglobin

dissolved in plasma

Gas Transport
Bicarbonate Ions
Move into plasma by an exchange
mechanism (the chloride shift) that takes in
Cl- ions without using ATP

Gas Transport

Figure 2323 Carbon Dioxide Transport in Blood.

Gas Transport
CO2 in the Bloodstream
70% is transported as carbonic acid (H2CO3)
Which dissociates into H+ and bicarbonate (HCO3-)

23% is bound to amino groups of globular proteins

in Hb molecule
Forming carbaminohemoglobin

7% is transported as CO2 dissolved in plasma

Gas Transport

Figure 2324a A Summary of the Primary Gas Transport Mechanisms:

Oxygen Transport.

Gas Transport

Figure 2324b A Summary of the Primary Gas Transport Mechanisms:

Carbon Dioxide Transport.

Control of Respiration
Peripheral and alveolar capillaries
maintain balance during gas diffusion by
Changes in blood flow and oxygen delivery
Changes in depth and rate of respiration

Control of Respiration

O2 delivery in tissues and pickup at lungs are regulated by:

1. Rising PCO levels:

relaxes smooth muscle in arterioles and capillaries

increases blood flow

2. Coordination of lung perfusion and alveolar ventilation:

shifting blood flow

3. PCO levels:

control bronchoconstriction and bronchodilation

Control of Respiration
The Respiratory Centers of the Brain
When oxygen demand rises
Cardiac output and respiratory rates increase
under neural control:
have both voluntary and involuntary components

Control of Respiration
Involuntary Centers
Regulate respiratory muscles
In response to sensory information

Voluntary Centers
In cerebral cortex affect
Respiratory centers of pons and medulla oblongata
Motor neurons that control respiratory muscles

Control of Respiration
The Respiratory Centers
Three pairs of nuclei in the reticular formation of
medulla oblongata and pons

Respiratory Rhythmicity Centers of the Medulla

Oblongata
Set the pace of respiration
Can be divided into two groups
Dorsal respiratory group (DRG)
Ventral respiratory group (VRG)

Control of Respiration
Dorsal Respiratory Group (DRG)
Inspiratory center
Functions in quiet and forced breathing

Ventral Respiratory Group (VRG)

Inspiratory and expiratory center
Functions only in forced breathing

Control of Respiration
Quiet Breathing
Brief activity in the DRG
Stimulates inspiratory muscles

DRG neurons become inactive

Allowing passive exhalation

Control of Respiration
Forced Breathing
Increased activity in DRG
Stimulates VRG

Which activates accessory inspiratory muscles

After inhalation
Expiratory center neurons stimulate active
exhalation

Control of Respiration

Figure 2325 Basic Regulatory Patterns of Respiration.

Control of Respiration
The Apneustic and Pneumotaxic Centers of the

Pons
Paired nuclei that adjust output of respiratory rhythmicity
centers
Regulating respiratory rate and depth of respiration

Apneustic Center
Provides continuous stimulation to its DRG center

Control of Respiration
Pneumotaxic Centers
Inhibit the apneustic centers
Promote passive or active exhalation

Control of Respiration
Respiratory Centers and Reflex Controls
Interactions between VRG and DRG
Establish basic pace and depth of respiration

The pneumotaxic center

Modifies the pace

Control of Respiration

Figure 2326 Respiratory Centers and Reflex Controls.