THE CELL AND ITS FUNCTION

S.M REYES, DMD

INTRODUCTION TO PHYSIOLOGY: THE CELL AND GENERAL

PHYSIOLOGY

1. THE FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY AND CONTROL OF INTERNAL

ENVIRONMENT
2. THE CELL AND ITS FUNCTION
3. GENETIC CONTROL OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS ,CELL FUNCTION AND CELL REPRODUCTION

THE CELL

ORGANIZATION OF THE CELL

two major parts of the cell :

nucleus- separated from the cytoplasm by a nuclear membrane

Cytoplasm- separated from the surrounding uids by a cell membrane, also called the plasma membrane.

The different substances that make up the cell are collectively called protoplasm.

Protoplasm is composed mainly of ve basic substances:

water, electrolytes, proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates.

PARTS OF THE CELL

PROTOPLASM IS COMPOSED MAINLY OF FIVE BASIC

SUBSTANCES
Water. The principal uid medium of the cell ,which is present in most cells, except for fat cells,

concentration of 70 to 85 per cent.

Ions. The most important ions in the cell are potassium,magnesium,phosphate, sulfate,

bicarbonate, and smaller quantities of sodium, chloride, and calcium.

Proteins. Second most abundant substances in most cells ,constitute 10 to 20 per cent of the cell

mass.
Lipids. phospholipids and cholesterol constitute only about 2 per cent of the total cell mass. insoluble

in water ,used to form the cell membrane and intracellular membrane barriers that separate the different
cell compartments.
Carbohydrates play a major role in nutrition of the cell, i.e glycogen

PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE CELL

PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE CELL

The cell is not merely a bag of uid, enzymes, and chemicals; it also contains highly organized physical

structures, called intracellular organelles.

The physical nature of each organelle is as important as the cells chemical constituents for cell function.

For instance, without one of the organelles,the mitochondria, more than 95 per cent of the cells energy
release from nutrients would cease immediately

PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE CELL

Membranous Structures of
the Cell

1.

2. Cytoplasm and Its Organelles

1. MEMBRANOUS STRUCTURES OF THE CELL

Cell membrane

also called the plasma membrane, envelops the cell, is a thin, pliable, elastic structure only 7.5 to 10 nanometers
thick.
It is composed almost entirely of proteins and lipids

The approximate composition is :

proteins,55 per cent

phospholipids, 25 per cent

cholesterol, 13 per cent

other lipids, 4 per cent

carbohydrates,3 per cent

LIPID: BARRIER OF THE CELL MEMBRANE AND IMPEDES

WATER PENETRATION
The basic lipid bilayer is composed of PHOSPHOLIPID molecules.
Each layer has two ends:

Hydrophilic or the phosphate portion

Hydrophobic or the fatty acid portion

hydrophobic portions of the phospholipid molecules are repelled by water but are mutually attracted to
one another,they have a natural tendency to attach to one another in the middle of the membrane

hydrophilic phosphate portions then constitute the two surfaces of the complete cell membrane:

intracellular water on the inside of the membrane

extracellular water on the outside surface.

PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER

CHOLESTEROL MOLECULES IN THE CELL MEMBRANE

also lipid in nature

Dissolved in the bilayer of the membrane.

They mainly help determine the degree of permeability (or impermeability) of the bilayer to water-soluble

constituents of body uids.

Cholesterol controls much of the uidity of the membrane as well.

PROTEINS IN THE CELL MEMBRANE

Two types of proteins occur:

1. integral proteins-protrude all the way through the membrane
2. peripheral proteins- attached only to one surface of the membrane and do not penetrate all the way

through.

FUNCTIONS OF INTEGRAL PROTEINS

1. provide structural channels (or pores) through which water molecules and water-soluble substances,

especially ions, can diffuse between the extracellular and intracellular uids
2. act as carrier proteins for transporting substances that otherwise could not penetrate the lipid bilayer

3. transport substances in the direction opposite to their natural direction of diffusion, which is called

active transport
4. act as enzymes

INTERGRAL PROTEINS AND PERIPHERAL PROTEINS

FUNCTION OF PERIPHERAL PROTEINS

Act as enzymes or as controllers of transport of substances through the cell

membrane pores.

CARBOHYDRATES IN THE CELL MEMBRANE GLYCOCALYX.

Proteoglycans are carbohydrate substances bound to small protein coresare loosely attached to the

outer surface of the cell as well.

Thus, the entire outside surface of the cell often has a loose carbohydrate coat called the glycocalyx.
functions of the Glycocalyx:

(1) a negative electrical charge, that repels other negative objects.

(2) The glycocalyx of some cells attaches to the glycocalyx of other cells, thus attaching cells to one
another.

(3) Many of the carbohydrates act as receptor substances for binding hormones

(4) Some carbohydrate moieties enter into immune reactions

PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE CELL

1. Membranous Structures of the Cell

. Cytoplasm and Its Organelles

CYTOPLASM
lled with both minute and large dispersed particles and organelles.
The clear uid portion of the cytoplasm in which the particles are dispersed is called
Dispersed in the cytoplasm are :

neutral fat globules

glycogen granules

Ribosomes

secretory vesicles,
ve especially important organelles: 1. the endoplasmic reticulum, 2. the Golgi apparatus, 3.mitochondria, 4.
lysoSomes, and 5. peroxisomes.

FIVE ESPECIALLY IMPORTANT ORGANELLES:

1. the endoplasmic reticulum

2. the Golgi apparatus

3. Mitochondria

4. Lysosomes
5. Peroxisomes.

1. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

network of tubular and at vesicular structures

The space inside the tubules and vesicles is lled with endoplasmic matrix, a watery medium that is
different from the uid in the cytosol

provide machinery for a major share of the metabolic functions of the cell
TWO TYPES OF ER:

1. Granular Endoplasmic Reticulum- Ribosomes, synthesize new protein molecules in the cell

2. Agranular Endoplasmic Reticulum- syn- thesis of lipid substances

GRANULAR AND AGRANULAR ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

GOLGI APPARATUS

composed of four or more stacked layers of thin,at,enclosed vesicles lying near one side of the
nucleus

The Golgi apparatus functions in association with the endoplasmic reticulum. HOW?

transport vesicles (also called endoplasmic reticulum vesicles,or ER vesicles) pinch off from the
endoplasmic reticulum and fuse with the Golgi apparatus.

The transported substances are then processed in the Golgi apparatus to form

lysosomes

secretory vesicles

other cytoplasmic components

GOLGI APPARATUS

LYSOSOMES

vesicular organelles that form by breaking off from the Golgi apparatus and then dispersing throughout

the cytoplasm
contains hydrolase (digestive) enzymes.

Functions:
(1) digests damaged cellular structures

(2)digests food particles that have been ingested by the cell

(3)digests unwanted matter such as bacteria

LYSOSOMES

PEROXISOMES
formed by self-replication (or perhaps by budding off from the smooth endoplasmic reticu- lum) rather

than from the Golgi apparatus.

contain oxidases rather than hydrolases

oxidases are capable of combining oxygen with hydrogen ions derived from different intracellular
chemicals to form hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).

Hydrogen peroxide is a highly oxidizing substance ,functions to oxidize many substances that might

otherwise be poisonous to the cell

i.e. about half the alcohol a person drinks is detoxied by the peroxisomes of the liver cells in this manner.

MITOCHONDRIA

powerhouses of the cell.

Mitochondria is self-replicative

composed mainly of two lipid bilayerprotein membranes:

an outer membrane
an inner membrane- form shelves onto which oxidative enzymes are attached

the inner cavity is lled with a matrix(contains large quantities of dissolved enzymes) necessary for

extracting energy from nutrients.

These enzymes operate in association with the oxidative enzymes on the shelves to cause

oxidation of the nutrients formation of 1. carbon dioxide and water 2. releasing energy (ATP)

MITOCHONDRIA

ATP FUNCTION

ATP releases its energya phosphoric acid radical is split away = formation of adenosine diphosphate

(ADP)
This released energy is used to energize vir tually all of the cells other functions, such as synthe- sis of

substances and muscular contraction.

To reconstitute the cellular ATP as it is used up,

energy derived from the cellular nutrients causes ADP and phosphoric acid to recombine to form new ATP, and
the entire process repeats over and over again.

Hence ,ATP has been called the energy currency of the cell

SECRETORY VESICLES

Formed by the endoplasmic reticulumGolgi

apparatus system and are then released from

the Golgi apparatus into the cytoplasm in the
form of storage vesicles

SECRETORY VESICLE

FILAMENT AND TUBULAR STRUCTURES OF THE CELL

primary function
act as a cytoskeleton, providing rigid physical structures for certain parts of cells.

NUCLEUS

control center of the cell.

contains large quantities of DNA, which are the genes.

The genes determine the characteristics of the cells proteins,including the structural proteins,as well as

the intracellular enzymes that control cytoplasmic and nuclear activities.

The genes also control and promote reproduction of the cell itself.
The genes rst reproduce to give two identical sets of genesthen the cell splits by a special process

called mitosis to form two daughter cells,each of which receives one of the two sets of DNA genes

NUCLEUS

NUCLEAR MEMBRANE

also called the nuclear envelope,

has two separate bilayer membranes, one inside the other.

The outer membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum and the space between the two

nuclear membranes is also continuous with the space inside the endoplasmic reticulum
The nuclear membrane is penetrated by several thousand nuclear pores

NUCLEOLI AND FORMATION OF RIBOSOMES

Nucleolus does not have a limiting membrane.

It is the accumulation of large amounts of RNA and proteins of the types

found in ribosomes.
The nucleolus becomes considerably enlarged when the cell is actively

synthesizing proteins.

NUCLEOLI AND FORMATION OF RIBOSOMES

Formation of the nucleoli (and of the ribosomes in the cytoplasm outside the

nucleus) begins in the nucleus. How?

Specic DNA genes in the chromosomes cause synthesis of RNA
Some of the RNA is stored in the nucleoli
most of the RNA is transported outward through the nuclear pores into cytoplasm.
Here, it is used in conjunction with specic proteins to assemble mature ribosomes that play an

essential role in forming cytoplasmic proteins

FUNCTIONAL SYSTEMS OF THE CELL

INGESTION BY THE CELLENDOCYTOSIS

If a cell is to live and grow and reproduce, it must obtain nutrients and other substances from the

surrounding uids.
Most substances pass through the cell membrane by diffusion and active transport.

Endocytosis a specialized function of the cell membrane which allows very large particles to enter the
cell

Two types Endocytosis

Pinocytosis - ingestion of minute particles that form vesicles of extracellular uid and particulate constituents
inside the cell cytoplasm.

Phagocytosis means ingestion of large particles, such as bacteria, whole cells, or portions of degenerating
tissue.

MECHANISMS OF PINOCYTOSIS

DIGESTION OF PINOCYTOTIC AND PHAGOCYTIC FOREIGN

SUBSTANCES INSIDE THE CELLFUNCTION OF THE
LYSOSOMES

After a pinocytotic or phagocytic vesicle appears inside a cell, one or more lysosomes become attached

to the vesicle and empty their acid hydrolases to the inside of the vesicle digestive vesicle
residual body- remnant of the digestive vesicle
Residual body is excreted through the cell membrane by a process called EXOCYTOSIS

DIGESTION OF PINOCYTOTIC AND PHAGOCYTIC FOREIGN

SUBSTANCES INSIDE THE CELLFUNCTION OF THE
LYSOSOMES

DIGESTION OF PINOCYTOTIC AND PHAGOCYTIC FOREIGN

SUBSTANCES INSIDE THE CELLFUNCTION OF THE
LYSOSOMES
Regression of Tissues and Autolysis of Cells

Tissues of the body often regress to a smaller size, Lysosomes are responsible for much of this regression

I.E Uterus after pregnancy, in muscles during long periods of inactivity, and in mammary glands at the end of
lactation

The lysosomes also contain bactericidal agents that can kill phagocytized bacteria before they can

cause cellular damage.

(1) lysozyme, dissolves the bacterial cell membrane;

(2) lysoferrin, prevents bacterial growth

(3) acid at a pH of about 5.0, which activates the hydrolases and inactivates bacterial metabolic systems.

LOCOMOTION OF CELL

Two other types of movement

ameboid locomotion
ciliary movement

1. AMEBOID MOVEMENT

movement of an entire cell in relation to its surroundings, such as movement of white blood cells
through tissues

Mechanism of ameboid locomotion:

1.Begins with protrusion of a pseudopodium from one end of the cell
2.The pseudopodium projects far out, away from the cell body, and partially secures itself in a new

tissue area.
3. Then the remainder of the cell is pulled toward the pseudopodium

AMEBOID MOVEMENT

 Types of cell that exhibit amoeboid locomotion

1. white blood cells when they move out of the blood into the tissues in the form of tissue macrophages.
2. broblasts move into a damaged area to help repair the damage
3. embryonic cells often must migrate long distances from their sites of origin to new areas during development
of special structures.

 Chemotaxis

Controls Ameboid Locomotion

most important initiator of ameboid locomotion

results from the appearance of certain chemical substances in the tissues- chemotactic substances

2. CILIA AND CILIARY MOVEMENTS

A second type of cellular motion

whiplike movement of cilia on the surfaces of cells.
Occurs in only two places in the human body:

1. surfaces of the respiratory airways

2. inside surfaces of the uterine tubes