Leading and Managing in Nursing

Leadership Theories
THEORY/ CONTRIBUTOR

Trait Theories
These theories are
sometimes referred to as the
Great Man theory, from
Aristotles philosophy
extolling the virtue of being
born with leadership traits.
Stogdill (1948) is usually
credited as the pioneer in this
school of thought

KEY IDEA

Leaders have a certain set

of physical and emotional
characteristics that are
crucial for inspiring others
toward a common goal.
Some theorist believe that
traits are innate and cannot
be learned; other believe
that leadership traits can be
developed in each
individual.

THEORY/ CONTRIBUTOR
Situational-Contingency
Theories
These theorists believed that
leadership effectiveness depends
on the relationship among
(1) the leaders task at hand, (2)
his or her interpersonal skills,
and (3) the favorableness of the
work situation. Examples of
theory development with this
expanded perspective include
Fiedlers (1967) Contingency
Model, the Vroom-Yetton (1973)
Normative Decision Making
Model, and House-Mitchells
(1974) Path-Goal theory.

KEY IDEA
Three factors are critical: (1) the
degree of trust and respect
between leaders and followers, (2)
the task structure denoting the
clarity of goals and the complexity
of problems faced, and (3) the
position power in terms of where
the leader was able to reward
followers and exert influence.
Consequently, leaders were
viewed as able to adapt their style
according to the presenting
situation.

THEORY/ CONTRIBUTOR
Transformational Theories
Transformational Theories arose
late in the last millennium when
globalization and other factors
caused organizations to
fundamentally reestablish
themselves. Many of these
attempts were failures, but great
attention was given to those
leaders who effectively
transformed structures, human
resources, and profitability
balanced with quality.

KEY IDEA
Transformational leadership
refers to a process whereby the
leader attends to the needs and
motives of followers so that the
interaction raises each to high
levels of motivation and morality.
The leader is a role model who
inspires followers through
displayed optimism, provides
intellectual stimulation and
encourages follower creativity

Motivational Theories
THEORY/
CONTRIBUTOR

KEY IDEA

Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow

People are motivated by a

hierarchy of human needs,
beginning with physiological
needs, then progressing to safety,
social, esteem and selfactualizing needs. In this theory,
when the need for food, water,
air, and other life-sustaining
elements is met, the human spirit
reaches out to achieve affiliation
with others, which promotes the
development of self-esteem,
competence, achievement, and
creativity. Lower-level needs, will

THEORY/ CONTRIBUTOR

Two-Factor Theory
Herzberg (1991)

KEY IDEA

Hygiene factors, such as

working conditions, salary,
status, and security, motivate
workers by meeting safety
and security needs and
avoiding job dissatisfaction.

THEORY/ CONTRIBUTOR

Expectancy Theory
Vroom (1964)
expectancy theory of
motivation

KEY IDEA

Felt needs of individuals cause

their behavior. In the work
setting, this motivated
behavior is increased if a
person perceives a positive
relationship between effort and
performance.

Management
Theory
Scientific
Management
Gulick & Urwick
(1937),
Moony (1939),
Taylor (1911)

Key Aspects
Focus is on goals and productivity.
The organization is viewed as a
machine to be run efficiently to
increase production. Managers must
closely supervise the work to assure
maximum efficiency. Worker must
have proper tools and equipment.
There is a focus on training the
worker to work most efficiently, and
performance incentives are used.
Time and motion studies are the
vehicle for determining how to do
and organize the work in the most
efficient manner.

Management
Theory

Bureaucratic
Management
Weber (1864,
reported in
Mommsen, W.J.
1992)

Key Aspects
Focus is on superior-subordinate
communication transmitted from the
top down via a clear chain of
command, a hierarchy of authority, and
a division of labor chain. Uses rational,
impersonal management process.
Uses explicit rules and regulations for
governing activities, focuses on
exacting work processes and technical
competence. Uses merit and skill as
basis for promotion/reward.
Emphasizes lifetime career service and
salaried managers.

Management
Theory

Administrative
Management
Shortell &
Kaluzny (2006)

Key Aspects
Focus is on the science of
management and principles of
organization applicable in any setting.
Identifies need for Planning,
Organizing, Staffing, Directing,
Coordinating, Reporting and Budgeting
(POSDCORB).
Commonly referred to as management
process that involves planning.
Organizing, coordinating, and
controlling.
Concerned with the optimal approach
for administrators to achieve economic
efficiency.

Management
Theory

Human Relations

Argyris (1964),
Barnard (1938),
Likert (1967),
McGregor (1960),
Rothlisberger &
Dickson (1939)

Key Aspects
Focuses on empowerment of the
individual worker as the source of
control, motivation, and productivity in
organizations.
Hawthorne studies at Western Electric
plant in Chicago led to belief that
human relations between workers and
managers and among workers were
the main determinants of efficiency.
The Hawthorne effect refers to the
phenomena of how being observed or
studied results in a change of behavior.
Emphasizes the participatory decisionmaking increases worker autonomy.
Provides training to improve work.

MAIN CONTRIBUTOR

Key Aspects

Abraham Maslow (1908 Motivation occurs when

needs are not met. Certain
1970)
needs have to be satisfied
first, beginning with
Hierarchy of Needs
physiological needs, then
safety and security needs,
then social needs, followed
by self-esteem needs and
then self-actualization needs.
Needs at one level must be
satisfied before one is
motivated by needs at the
next higher level of needs.

Main Contributor

Key Aspects
Frederick Herzberg Hygiene-maintenance factors include
(1964)
adequate salary status, job security,
quality of supervision, safe and
Two-factor theory: tolerable working conditions, and
relationships with others. When these
Hygienefactors are absent, they can be
Maintenance
sources of job dissatisfaction. When
factors and
they are present, job satisfaction can
Motivator factors
be avoided. However, these factors
alone will not lead to job satisfaction.

Main Contributor
Douglas McGregor
(1906 1964)
Theory X

Theory Y

Key Aspects
Leaders must direct and control
because motivation results from
reward and punishment. Employees
prefer security, direction, and minimal
responsibility, and they need coercion
and threats to get the job done.

Main Contributor
William Ouchi
(1981)
Theory Z

Key Aspects
Uses collective decision-making, long
term employment, mentoring, holistic
concern, and use of quality circles to
manage service and quality.
This a humanistic style of motivational
based on the study of Japanese
organizations.