Computer

communications

The exchange of
information between
computers for the
purpose of
cooperative action

Computer network

Two or more
computers
interconnected via a
communication
network

A protocol is used for

communication
between entities in
different systems
Entity
Anything capable of sending or
receiving information
Examples are user application
programs, file transfer packages,
database management systems,
electronic mail facilities, and
terminals

System
A physically distinct object
that contains one or more
entities
Examples are computers,
terminals, and remote sensors

A set of rules governing the exchange of data

between two entities
Key elements:
Syntax
Includes such things as data format and signal levels

Semantics
Includes control information for coordination and error
handling

Timing
Includes speed matching and sequencing

Distributed data communications involves three

primary components:
Networks
Computers
Applications

Three corresponding layers

Network access layer
Transport layer
Application layer

Concerned with the

exchange of data between a
computer and the network
to which it is attached
The specific software used at
this layer depends on the
type of network to be used
Different standards have
been developed for circuit
switching, packet switching
and LANs

IEEE 802 is a standard

that specifies the
access to a LAN

 Assurance that all of

Concerned with
the data arrive at the
reliable transfer of
destination application
information between and that the data arrive
in the same order in
applications
which they were sent

Mechanisms for
providing reliability
are essentially
independent of the
nature of the
applications

The transport layer is a

common layer shared
by all applications
where these
mechanisms can be
collected

Contains the logic needed to support

the various user applications

A separate module is needed for

each different type of application
such as file transfer, that is peculiar to
that application

Vendors like
standards because
they make their
products more
marketable

Two protocol
architectures have
served as the basis
for the development
of interoperable
protocol standards:
TCP/IP suite
OSI reference model

Customers like
standards because
they enable products
from different
vendors to
interoperate

A widely used
proprietary scheme
is IBMs Systems
Network
Architecture (SNA)

Result of protocol research

and development
conducted on the
experimental packetswitched network,
ARPANET
Protocol suite consists of a
large collection of protocols
that have been issued as
Internet standards by the
Internet Activities Board
(IAB)
No official TCP/IP model

Organized into five

relatively independent
layers:
Application layer
Host-to-host, or transport
layer
Internet layer
Network access layer
Physical layer

TCP is the most commonly used

protocol at the transport layer

The network access layer provides the

attached network with the
information needed to reach a router
that connects the network to the next
network on the route to the
destination

The Internet Protocol (IP) is used at

the internet layer to provide the
routing function across multiple
networks
A router is a device that connects two
networks and whose primary function is to
relay data from one network to the other on a
route from the source to the destination end
system

The physical layer is concerned with

specifying the characteristics of the
transmission medium, the nature of
the signals, the data rate, and related
matters

Most TCP/IP applications use TCP for

transport layer

TCP provides a connection (logical

association) between two entities to
regulate flow check errors
UDP (User Datagram Protocol) does not
maintain a connection, and therefore does
not guarantee delivery, preserve
sequences, or protect against duplication

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

Supports a basic electronic mail facility by providing a
mechanism for transferring messages among separate hosts
Features include mailing lists, return receipts, and
forwarding

FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

Sends files from one system to another on user command
Both text and binary files are accommodated

SSH (Secure Shell)

Provides a secure remote login capability which enables a
user at a terminal or personal computer to logon to a
remote computer and function as if directly connected to
that computer

HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol)

Connects client systems to Web servers on the
Internet
Its primary function is to establish a connection
with the server and send HTML pages back to the
users browser

SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)

A widely used network monitoring and control
protocol

(This table is located on page 222 in the text)

Equipment used to interconnect independent

networks
Essential functions:
Provide a link between networks
Provide for the routing and delivery of data
between end systems attached to different
networks
Provide these functions without requiring
modifications of the networking architecture of any
of the attached networks

The router must accommodate a number of

differences among networks:
Addressing schemes
Networks may use different schemes for assigning addresses
to devices

Maximum packet size

Packets from one network may have to be broken into smaller
pieces to be transmitted on another network (fragmentation)

Interfaces
The hardware and software interfaces to various networks
differ

Reliability
Operations should not depend on an assumption
of network reliability

(Figure is on page 225 in text)

(Figure is on page 226 in text)

(Figure is on page 227 in text)

Consists of a set of
computers that
interconnect by
means of a relatively
unsecure network

Makes use of
encryption and
special protocols to
provide security

Provides the capability to secure communications

across a LAN, across private and public WANs, and
across the Internet
Examples of its use include:
Secure branch office connectivity over the Internet
Secure remote access over the Internet
Establishing extranet and intranet connectivity with
partners
Enhancing electronic commerce security

Principal feature is that it can encrypt and/or

authenticate all traffic at the IP level
Thus, all distributed applications, including remote
logon, client/server, e-mail, file transfer, and
Web access can be secured

Provides
stronger
security to
routers and
firewalls

Is resistant
to bypass
within a
firewall

Is
transparent
to
applications

Is
transparent
to end users

Can provide
security for
individual
users if
needed

IPsec provides three main facilities:

An authentication-only function referred to as
Authentication Header (AH)
A combined authentication/encryption function
called Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP)
A key exchange function

A simple protocol architecture

The need for a protocol

architecture

Three-layer model

Standardized protocol
architectures

Virtual private networks and IP

security

Internetworking

Routers

The TCP/IP architecture

TCP/IP layers

Operation of TCP/IP

TCP and UDP

IPsec

IP and IPv6

Applications of IPsec

TCP/IP applications

Benefits of IPsec

Protocol interfaces

IPsec functions

Chapter 8: TCP/IP