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Siwalik Hills

Siwalik

Siwalik

SIWALIK GROUP
Its extent in Pakistan, Jammu and
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and
Uttaranchal.
The name Siwalik was originally given by
Captain P.T. Cautley in the early 19th
Century (1832) to the outermost SubHimalayan Ranges.
He discovered the Siwalik fossils in the
course of digging for the Ganga canal near
a Shiva (Siva) at Haridwar (now in
Uttaranchal) in the Ganga Valley.

Hence the name Siwalik was given to the


sedimentary rocks entombing the fossils.
Subsequently it was applied to the
mammal-bearing horizon of the Neogene
continental deposits of the Himalayan
foothills.
The Siwalik Hills (sometimes spelled
Shiwalik, Shivalik, or Sivalik) are a subHimalayan mountain range running 1,600
km long from the Tista River, Sikkim,
through Nepal and India, into northern
Pakistan.

Falconer adopted the term in 1835 to


designated the nearly continuous series of
Tertiary formations stretching from the
Indus River in the west to Irrawady River
in Myanmar in the east.
The succession was later sub-divided
three-fold without their actual extents
being defined.
H.B. Medlicott contributed substantially to
understanding of the stratigraphy of the
Siwalik Group, particularly between the
Ganga and the Ravi rivers.

Besides Pilgrim (1910-1944), who made a


very detailed study of the Siwalik
vertebrate fauna, others who in the earlier
years contributed to out understanding of
the sediments of the Siwalik were E.H.
Colbert, G.E. Lewis, R. Lewis, R. Lydekker
and D.N. Wadia.

The Siwalik Group occurs in Potwar basin


in NW Pakistan and extends along the
Himalayan foothills to Arunachal Pradesh
foothill in the SE, except for a small brake
near Sikkim.
The group is about 7 km thick and ranges
from Middle Micocene to early (?)
Pleistocene (16.8 to 0.22 Ma) in age.

The Siwalik hills are relatively low, and


rarely exceed 1000 m above MSL with
conformable trends running parallel to the
Himalaya.
The strata are folded and have an outcrop
pattern, more or less bounded by a major
thrust in the north- the Main Himalayan
Frontal Thrust (HFT).

The Siwalik is separated from the IndoGangetic plain in the south by the
Main boundary Fault (MBF).
The Siwalik outcrops are generally 1012 km wide and present them selves
as a series of parallel ridges with a
steep scarp towards south.
Between the outermost hills in the
south and the one in the interior in the
north are many narrow valleys called
Duns filled up mostly with
Quaternary sediments.

Stratigraphy and sedimentation


The high degree of lateral and vertical
facies variation and poor continunity of
lithological characteristic precludes the
possibility of satisfactory lithostratigraphic
classification of the Siwalik sediments.
Pilgrim, based on the work in Potwar (now
in Pakistan), divided the Siwalik into three
units, designating them Upper, Middle and
Lower based on correlation between
Siwalik fauna and similar fauna of Europe.

Chronostratigraphic division of the Siwalik Group ( Tndaon et al., 1988)


Geological time scale

Pleistocene

Pliocene

Miocene

Upper
Siwalik

Middle
Siwalik

Lower
Siwalik

Classification of
the Siwalik
Group

Standard
European
Equivalent

Age calculated
from reversal
stratigraphy

Continental
equivalent

Boulder Cong.

Cromerian

1.5 to 0.5 m.y.

Pinjor

Villafranchian

2.47 m.y.

Tatrot

Astian

5.5 m.y.

?
Mid-Late
Villafranchian
RuscinianEarly
Villafranchian

Dhok Pathan

Pontian

8.5 m.y.

Nagri

Sarmatian

10.8 m.y.

Chinji
Kamlial
Murcee Group

Burdigalian

Turolian
L. Vellesian
E. Turolian

14.3 m.y.

OeningianVellesian

18.3 m.y

Pre-Oeningian

Lithostratigraphy of the Siwalik Group (Kanunakaran & Ranga Rao, 1976)


Subgroup

Lithology
B

Upper
Siwalik
A
B
Middle
Siwalik

B
Lower
Siwalik
A

Predominantly massive conglomerate with red and


orange clay as matrix and minor sandstone and
earth buff and brown claystone.
Sandstone, clay and conglomerate alteration.

thichness

2300 m

Massive sandstone with minor conglomerate and


local variegated claystone.
Predominantly medium to coarse grained sandstone
and red clays alternation, soft pebbly with
subordinate claystone, locally thick prism of
conglomerate.

1400 m to
2000 m

Alteration of fine to medium grained sporadically


pebbly sandstone. Calcareous cement and
prominent chocolate and maroon claystone in the
middle part.
Red and mauve claystone with intercalations of
medium to dine grained sandstone.

1600 m

Lower Siwalik
Lower Siwalik is chiefly a multi-storeyed,
multilateral fluvial complex, primarily of
channel lag and of lateral accretion
deposits.
The mineralogical composition of the
grains reflects denudation for
stratigraphically normal metasedimentary
terrain of the crystalline thrust sheet,
yielding metamorphic detritus.
Though sedimentary detritus is present, it
deceases considerably upwards in the
molasses sequence.

Middle Siwalik
It consists of sandstone bodies with
interceded siltstone and shale, followed by
mudstone, marl and finally pebbly
sandstone and sandy conglomerate.
There are indicative of flood plain
deposits.
The calcareous content in a part of the
sequence has been derived from clast of
the Tertiary limestone's of the Himalayan
source.

Upper Siwalik
The Upper Siwalik sediments were deposited
under two distinct conditions, one as inner Siwalik
valley fillings and the other as regular river channel
and flood plain deposit, to the south of the present
Siwalik Ranges.
This is probably the result of the uplift of the inner
sector of the Neogene basin towards the end of the
Zanclian time (Early Pliocene).
An examination of the sedimentary history along a
section in Kangra sub-basin in Himachal Pradesh,
based on magnetic polarity studies, revealed
episodic increasing and decreasing rate of
sediment accumulation ranging from 19 cm/100
years to 50 cm/1000 years.

Siwalik - Environment
Siwalik sediments have been deposited
broadly in four environments.
Piedmont,
Outwash plains
Channel and flood plains and
Lacustrine
Which shifted in space and time during the
deposition of an enormous thickness of
molassic sediments between 5000 to 6000
m, preserving a unique record of
Himalayan tectonic events.

It was believed that the drainage during part of the


Tertiary and the Siwalik times in the IndoGangetic depression had but one outlet, where
the Indus now runs into the sea; that this great
river system drained the whole of the Himalayan
region.
It was called indo-Brahm River by Pascoe and
Siwalik by Pilgrim.
Though based on faunal evidence this hypothesis
was challenged but recent geophysical studies
of the bottom configuration of the Indo-Gangetic
plain again seem to suggest the possible
existence of a major river during the later Siwalik
times flowing due west from the east.

Fauna from Siwalik


The Siwalik Group is well known for its
wealth of vertebrate fauna, though they
are confined to only certain horizons and
only some of them are of biostratigraphic
importance. Of added significance is the
occurrence of hominoids in almost all the
formations.

Fauna from Lower Siwalik


Carnivora

: Amphicyon sp., Viverra chinjiensis

Proboscidae

: Deinotherium, Gomphotherium.

Equidae

: Stegolophodon

Suidae

: Listriodon, Conohys sp.

Anthracotheriidae : Hemimeryx, Telmatodon.


Rhinocerotidae

: Aceratherium, Chilotherium

Giraffidae

: Propalaeomeryx

Bovidae

: Doradoxa.

Rodentia

: Rhizomys, Copemys

Primates

: Sivapithecus, Sugrivapithecus.

Fauna from Middle Siwalik


Carnivora

: Sivanasua, Crocuta, Lycyaena.

Proboscidae

: Deinotherium.

Equidae

: Hipparion antelopinum

Suidae

: Tetraconodon, Propotamochoerus sp.

Anthracotheriidae

: Anthracodon, Anthracotherium.

Rhinocerotidae

: Brachypotherum,Gaindatherium.

Giraffidae

: Vishnutherium, Giraffokeryx, Hydaspitherium.

Bovidae

: Gazella, Protragocerus.

Rodentia

: Rhizomys, Kanisamys

Primates

: Krishnapithecus, Ramapithecus..

Fauna from Middle Siwalik


Carnivora

: Crocuta, Agriotherium, Felis

Proboscidae

: Trilophodon, Paratetralophodon, Stegodon

Equidae

: Cormohipparion, Equus sivalenis.

Suidae

: Hippohyus, Sus, Docoryphochoerus.

Anthracotheriidae : Choeromeryx, Hippopotamus, Cervus.


Rhinocerotidae

: Rhinoceras, Coelodonta.

Giraffidae

: Sivatherum, Camelopardalis..

Bovidae

: Tragocerus, Bos, Bison.

Rodentia

: Rhizomys, Hystrix, Nesokia.

Primates

: Giganthopithecus, Papio.

Equus stenonis (US)

Sivatherium
(US)

Stegodon
(MUS)

Geological Framework of Nepal Himalaya

Nepal occupies the central sector of Himalayan arc. Nearly


one third of the 2400 km long Himalayan range lies within
Nepal. Similar to other parts of the Himalaya, from south to
north, Nepal can be also subdivided into the following five
major tectonic zones.
Gangetic Plain
Sub-Himalayan (Siwalik) Zone
Lesser Himalayan Zone
Higher Himalayan Zone
Tibetan-Tethys Himalayan Zone
Each of these zones is characterized by their own lithology,
tectonics, structures and geological history.

Geological map of Nepal (modified from Dahal, 2006)

These all tectonic zones are separated from each


other by the thrust faults. The southernmost fault,
the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) separates the SubHimalayan (Siwalik) Zone from Gangetic Plains. The
Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) separates the Lesser
Himalayan Zone from Siwalik. The Main Central
Thrust (MCT) separates the Higher Himalayan Zone
from the Lesser Himalayan Zone.

Geological map of Nepal (modified from Dahal, 2006)

The South Tibetan Detachment System (STDS)


marks the boundary between the Higher Himalayan
Zone and the overlying fossiliferous sequence of the
Tibetan-Tethys Himalayan Zone. The Indo-Tsangpo
Suture Zone is the contact knot between Indian
plate and Tibetan (Eurasian) Plate in terms of plate
tectonics.

Chrono-stratigraphical division of Siwalik sediments.

Lower Siwalik
The Lower Siwalik consist of irregularly
laminated beds of fine grained greenish
sandstone and siltstone with mudstone.
The alternating mudstone beds are thickly
bedded and are variegated, red, purple, and
brown coloured.
The best exposures of Lower Siwalik are
found in Surainaka, Amlekhgunj, Arun Khola,
Barahchhetra and Rato Khola area of Nepal.

Middle Siwalik
The Middle Siwalik are comprised of medium to
coarse grained salt-and-pepper (looks like mixture
of salt and black pepper) sandstones interbedded
with mudstone (Fig).
This is differentiated from the Lower Siwalik in
lacking variegated mudstone and sandstone. In
upper part of the Middle Siwalik, pebbly sandstone
beds are also found.

Middle Siwalik
In Middle Siwalik the sandstone beds have
thickness mostly ranges from 1 m to 45 m.
The exposures of Middle Siwalik are found
mainly in Surkhet, Surai Khola, Hetauda, and
Butwal.

Upper Siwalik
Comprised of conglomerate and boulder beds and
subordinately sand and silt beds.
The mudstone beds of the Upper Siwalik are
massive and irregularly bedded and contain many
invertebrate fossils including Brachiopods and
Gastropods.
The upper part of this sequence contains
conglomerate beds, which have mostly boulder and
cobble size rounded to sub-angular fragments of
Lesser Himalayan rocks.
In Bardibas, Hetauda, Bhalubang, and Chitwan the
good exposure of Upper Siwalik can be seen.

Lesser Himalayan Zone


The LHZ is bounded to the north by the Main
Central Thrust (MCT) and to the south by Main
Boundary Thrust (MBT).
MBT can be traced out in whole Nepal Himalaya
and it can be also well observed in aerial
Photographs also (Fig).
The rocks of LHZ have been transported
southwards in several thrust slices.

Lesser Himalayan Zone


Generally two types of sequences namely autochthonous
and allochthonous can be distinguished in this Zone
throughout the Himalayas.
The both sequences of the Lesser Himalaya mainly have
unfossiliferous, sedimentary, and metasedimentary rocks
such as slate, phyllite, schist, quartzite, limestone, dolomite,
etc, ranging in age from Precambrian to Eocene.
There are also some granitic intrusions in this zone.

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