Optical Instruments

Chapter 25

Introduction
We will discuss:

Cameras
The eye
The simple magnifier
The compound microscope
The telescope
The Michelson interferometer
The diffraction grating

The Camera
A single lens camera consists of:

A light tight box

A converging lens
Produces a real, inverted image
Focusing is done by adjusting the distance between
the lens and the film.

25.1

A shutter

Camera Variables
Shutter speeds
Control exposure times
Faster shutter speeds for faster objects or
for bright light

Aperture size

Larger aperture needed for low light

conditions

 f-number

The ratio of the focal length to the diameter of

the lens

f
f - number
D

Determines the speed of the lens

A measure of the light concentrating power of
the lens
f-number means that the aperture is wide
A small
open

 The equation for lateral magnification:

'

h
q
M

h
p

The London Eye

The Human Eye

Parts of the eye:

Cornea
Aqueous humor
Iris and pupil
Crystalline lens
Vitreous humor
Retina

B13

Rods and cones

 Accommodation

Ciliary muscles
Relaxed

when viewing distant objects

 The focal length of the eye is about 1.7

cm.

 The cornea does over 70 % of the

refracting.
The lens makes the final adjustment.

The Near Point

The near point is the closest distance for
which the lens will produce a sharp
image of a nearby object on the retina.
About 18 cm at age 10
About 25 cm at age 20
About 50 cm at age 40
500 cm or greater at age 60

The Far Point

The far point is the farthest distance for
which the lens will produce a sharp
image of a far away object on the retina.

Objects located beyond the far point will

be out of focus.

Defects of the Eye

Hyperopia (farsightedness)

Corrected with a converging lens

Myopia (nearsightedness)

Corrected with a diverging lens

Astigmatism

Corrected by using cylindrical lenses

25.3, 25.4, 30-1

Astigmatism Test

Diseases of the Eye

Cataracts

The lens is surgically

replaced

 Glaucoma

Corrected by medication or YAG solid

state laser surgery

The Power (P) of a Lens

Measured in diopters (no abbreviation)

Used in lens prescriptions

Formula:

1
P
f
f must be in meters

The Simple Magnifier

Consists of a single converging lens

Increases the apparent size of an object

25.6a, b

Angular Magnification (m)

Angular Magnification is the ratio
of the angle subtended by the object
when the lens is in use to the angle
subtended by the object when it is
placed at the near point with no lens

m
o

Maximum angular magnification

occurs when the image formed
by the lens is at the near point of
the eye (more eye stress).
25cm
m 1
f

Angular magnification (m) when

the image formed by the lens is
at infinity (relaxed eye):

25cm
m
f

The Compound Microscope

Uses two lenses to achieve greater
magnification than the simple magnifier
An objective with a short focal length ( f o )
An eyepiece (ocular) with a focal length
( f e ) of a few centimeters
Lenses are separated by a distance (L)
which is greater than either f o or f e

25.7a

Microscope Images
The image formed by the objective
becomes the object for the eyepiece.
The image is inverted with respect to
the object.

Microscope Equations
Magnification equations:
L
M1
fo

25cm
me
fe

L 25 cm
M M1m e (
)
fo
fe

The Electron Microscope

Atoms could never be seen with a compound
microscope by using visible light
The wavelength of light is too large

The Telescope
There are two fundamentally different
types of telescopes.

 The Refracting Telescope

 The Reflecting Telescope

The Refracting Telescope

It uses a combination of lenses.
The image (q1) formed by the first lens becomes the
object (p2) for the second lens.
The image is inverted.

L fo fe
25.8a

fo
m
fe

Refracting Telescope
Difficulties
Large refracting telescopes are difficult
to manufacture and are expensive.
In addition, their large masses would
lead to sagging which would cause
distortion.

The Reflecting Telescope

Reflecting telescopes are preferred in
astronomy.

A parabolic mirror replaces the objective.

Spherical

aberration is reduced.
Chromatic aberration is
virtually eliminated.

The Newtonian Focus

Reflecting Telescopes use the Newtonian

focus.

Large Telescopes
The largest telescopes in the world are
reflecting telescopes.

10 meter lens in Hawaii

5 meter lens on Mt. Palomar in California

Canada-France-Hawaii

Mt. Palomar

 The largest refracting telescope in the world

is at Yerkes Observatory in Wisconsin

Only 1 meter in diameter

Yerkes Observatory

Images
Microscopes and telescopes can only form
virtual images.

Resolution Of Single-Slit And

Circular Apertures
It is important to be able to distinguish
between two closely spaced objects.

This ability is limited by the diffraction of

light

25.10

Maximum Resolution
If the two sources are separated so that
their central maxima do not overlap,
their images can be distinguished and
they are said to be resolved.

265

Maximum resolution occurs at the shortest

possible wavelength.

Rayleighs Criterion
When the central maximum of one
image falls on the first minimum of
another image, the images are said to be
resolved.
Equations

for the resolution of a circular

aperture ( is in radians)

266

min 1.22

The Diffraction Grating

Diffraction gratings are preferred over single
or double slits when accurate wavelength
measurements are needed.

They have a much higher resolution and provide a

brighter pattern.

y
sin
L

sin m

The Michelson Interferometer

It splits a light beam
into two parts and then
recombines them to
form an interference
pattern.

262

The Michelson Equation

L N
4
L is the length of travel of the adjustable
mirror.
N is the number of fringe shifts.

Questions
1, 3, 4, 6 - 9, 11, 13
Pg. 842