Modern Period (17th-19th Century) On Mathematics

Modern Period
Mathematics
TH
17
TH
19
Century
th
17
Century Mathematics
John Napier
Marin Mersenne
Rene Descartes
Pierre de Fermat
Blaise Pascal
Gerard (Girard) Desargues
Isaac Newton
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
th
17
Century Mathematics
John
Napier (1550 - 4 April 1617)
Born in Edinburgh, Scotland,

into the Scottish nobility
Studied in Europe
Interested in Mathematics,
Astronomy, Religion, and
Politics
th
17
Century Mathematics
John Napier
Logarithms
Description
Significant contributions
Used by Johannes Kepler for his Third Law of Planetary Motion:

The ratio of the squares of the revolutionary periods for two
planets is equal to the ratio of the cubes of their semi-major axes.
Simplified large-number calculations
Biomathematics(Modeling Population Growth)
Physics(Radioactive Decay, Astronomy)
Chemistry(pH)
th
17
Century Mathematics
Napiers
Rods/Bones
Made of ivory so
that it looked like
bones
Aided in
multiplication and
division
John Napier
th
17
Century Mathematics
Napiers
John Napier
Rods/Bones
Example:
825
x 913
2475
8250
+ 742500
753225
th
17
Century Mathematics
Marin
Mersenne (8 Sept. 1588 - 1 Sept. 1648)
French theologian, natural

philosopher, and
mathematician
Generated a formula to
find prime numbers of the
form, = 2 1, -prime
th
17
Century Mathematics
Marin Mersenne
Published works on Music Theory,

Mathematics, Physics, and Astronomy
Uses of Mersenne primes:

Number
Theory
Cryptography
th
17
Century Mathematics
Rene
Descartes (31 Mar, 1596 11 Feb, 1650)
French Philosopher,
Mathematician, and Writer
Father of Modern Philosophy
Made an important
contribution in Analytical
Geometry by developing the
Cartesian Plane.
th
17
Century Mathematics
The Cartesian Plane

Translates
Algebra
to Geometry; thus,
making new
innovations in
Analytic Geometry
Rene Descartes
th
17
Century Mathematics
th
17
Century Mathematics
Pierre
de Fermat (August 17, 1601 January 12, 1665)
Small town amateur mathematician
Inspired by Arithmetica by Diophantus
Contributions on Number Theory, Modern Calculus

and Probability
Despite showing interest in Mathematics, he

studied law at Orlans and received the title of
councillor at the High Court of Judicature in
Toulouse in 1631, which he held for the rest of his
life.
th
17
Century Mathematics
Pierre de Fermat
Sworn in by the Grand Chambre in May 1631 thus

hes entitled to change his name from Pierre
Fermat to Pierre de Fermat.
Fluent in Latin, Greek, Italian and Spanish, and was

praised for his written verse in several languages,
and eagerly sought for advice on the emendation
of Greek texts.
Dominique Fermat (father) wealthy leather

merchant and Claire, ne de Long (mother),
daughter of a prominent family.
th
17
Century Mathematics
Pierre de Fermat
Most of Fermats work was written in letters to

friends, which often provided little or no proof
of his theorems. Although he himself claimed
to have proved all his arithmetic theorems,
few records of his proofs have survived, and
many mathematicians have doubted some
of his claims, especially given the difficulty of
some of the problems and the limited
mathematical tools available to Fermat.
th
17
Century Mathematics
Fermats
Pierre de Fermat
Contributions
Methodus ad disquirendam maximam et minima and

in De tangentibus linearum curvarum, Fermat developed
a method for determining maxima, minima, and
tangents to various curves that was equivalent
to differential calculus.
In these works, Fermat obtained a technique for finding

the centers of gravity of various plane and solid figures,
which led to his further work in quadrature (numerical
integration).
th
17
Century Mathematics
Pierre de Fermat
Fermats Factorization
Method
Infinite Descent
Fermats Prime Numbers
Two Square Theorem
Fermats Little Theorem
Probability (gambling)
th
17
Century Mathematics
Fermats
Last
Theorem
Puzzled
years.
mathematicians
for
350
Found by his son in his copy of an

edition of Diophantus and it
includes the statement that the
margin was too small to include the
proof.
Pierre de Fermat
th
17
Century Mathematics
th
17
Century Mathematics
Blaise
Pascal (June 19, 1623 August 19, 1662)
Known as a child prodigy

tienne Pascal (father) and Antoinette Bgon
(mother, whom which died in 1626).
French mathematician, physicist, inventor,
writer and Christian philosopher.
First education was confined to languages
and not included any mathematics.
th
17
Century Mathematics
Blaises
Contributions
Essay on conic
sections (16 years old)
First Arithmetical
Machine (Pascaline,
18)
Blaise Pascal
th
17
Century Mathematics
Blaise Pascal
Trait du triangle arithmtique ("Treatise

on the Arithmetical Triangle") of 1653
Problem of Points and Gamblers Ruin
Pascals Principle in Fluids
Roulette Machine (accidental invention)
Wrist Watch
Others are theology related
17th Century Mathematics
th
17
Century Mathematics
Gerard
Born
(Girard) Desargues (February 21, 1591 September 1661)
in aristocratic family
Mathematician and Engineer
Worked as tutor, engineer, architect
and technical consultant
th
17
Century Mathematics
Gerard Desargues
Gerards Contribution
Desargues
Perspective Theorem
Epicycloidial
Wheel
th
17
Century Mathematics
Gerard Desargues
th
17
Century Mathematics
Gerard Desargues
th
17
Century Mathematics
Isaac
Newton (1643-1727)
A physicist, astronomer,
alchemist and a theologian
Made a book called the
Philosophi Naturalis
Principia Mathematica or
Mathematical Principles
of Natural Philosophy or
also called as Principia
th
17
Century Mathematics
Isaac Newton
Newton's Three Laws of Motion
Law of Inertia
Every body persists in its state of being at rest or of moving uniformly straight
forward, except insofar as it is compelled to change its state by force
impressed
Force and Acceleration
The alteration of motion is ever proportional to the motive force impress'd;

and is made in the direction of the right line in which that force is impress'd
F=ma
Action-Reaction
To every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction: or the forces
of two bodies on each other are always equal and are directed in opposite
directions..
th
17
Century Mathematics
Isaac Newton
During the Great Plague of 1665-6, he

developed a theory of light, discovered
and quantified gravitation, and pioneered
a revolutionary new approach to
mathematics: infinitesimal calculus.
calculated a derivative function ()
which gives the slope at any point of a
function ()
th
17
Century Mathematics
Isaac Newton
Differentiation
(derivative)
approximates
the slope of a
curve as the
interval
approaches
zero
th
17
Century Mathematics
Isaac Newton
This process of calculating the slope or derivative

of a curve or function is called differential
calculus or diffrentitation (in Newtons
terminology, the method of fluxions)
The opposite of differentiation is integration or

integral calculus (or, in Newtons terminology, the
method of fluents), and together differentiation
and integration are the two main operations of
calculus.
Newtons Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
th
17
Century Mathematics
Integration
approximates the
area under a
curve as the size
of the samples
approaches zero.
Isaac Newton
th
17
Century Mathematics
Gottfried
(1646-1716)
Wilhelm Leibniz
German polymath
one of the three great 17th
Century rationalists
along with Descartes and
Spinoza
politician and representative
of the royal house of Hanover
th
17
Century Mathematics
He was perhaps the first to explicitly employ the

mathematical
notion of a function to denote geometric concepts
derived
from a curve, and he developed a system of
infinitesimal calculus, independently of his
contemporary Sir Isaac Newton.
Also revived the ancient method of solving

equations using
matrices
th
17
Century Mathematics
invented a practical calculating machine called Stepped

Reckoner
pioneered the use of the binary system.
th
17
Century Mathematics
Also developed a very similar theory of

calculus compared to Newton.
Within the short period of about two

months he had developed a complete
theory of differential calculus and
integral calculus
th
17
Century Mathematics
Also often considered the most important

logician between Aristotle in Ancient
Greece and George Boole and Augustus De
Morgan in the 19th Century.
Even though he actually published nothing on
formal logic in his lifetime, he enunciated in his
working drafts the principal properties of what
we now call conjunction, disjunction,
negation, identity, set inclusion and the empty
set.
th
17
Century Mathematics
Newton
and Leibniz
Unlike Newton, however, he was more than happy to publish his

work, and so Europe first heard about calculus from Leibniz in 1684,
and not from Newton (who published nothing on the subject until
1693). When the Royal Society was asked to adjudicate between the
rival claims of the two men over the development of the theory of
calculus, they gave credit for the first discovery to Newton, and credit
for the first publication to Leibniz. However, the Royal Society, by then
under the rather biased presidency of Newton himself, later also
accused Leibniz of plagiarism, a slur from which Leibniz never really
recovered.
th
17
Century Mathematics
Ironically,
it was
Leibnizs mathematics
that eventually
triumphed, and his
notation and his way of
writing calculus, not
Newtons more clumsy
notation, is the one still
used in mathematics
today.
END
of the
th
17 CENTURY
th
18
Century Mathematics
Bernoulli Brothers
(Jacob Bernoulli & Johann Bernoulli)
Leonhard Euler
Christian Goldbach
Abraham de Moivre
Joseph Louis Lagrange
Pierre-Simon Laplace
Adrien-Marie Legendre
th
18
Century Mathematics
Bernoulli
Brothers
Jacob (1654-1705)
Johann Bernoulli (1667-1748)

Bernoulli family - prosperous family
of traders and scholars
- Basel in Switzerland, which
at that time was the great
commercial hub of central
Europe
th
18
Century Mathematics
Jacob
Bernoulli (1654-1705)
professor at Basel University

helped to consolidate infinitesimal calculus
developed a technique for solving separable
differential equations
th
18
Century Mathematics
Jacob Bernoulli
The Art of Conjecture - published in 1713

- consolidated existing knowledge on probability
theory and expected values
- theory of permutations and combinations

- Bernoulli trials and Bernoulli distribution
- Bernoulli Numbers sequence
th
18
Century Mathematics
Bernoulli
Numbers
Jacob Bernoulli
th
18
Century Mathematics
Jacob Bernoulli
published papers on transcendental curves

invented polar coordinates
the first to use the word integral to refer to
the area under a curve.
discovered the approximate value of the
irrational number .
died from tuberculosis at the age of 54
th
18
Century Mathematics
Johann Bernoulli (1667-1748 )

took over his brother's position
further developed infinitesimal calculus including
the calculus of variation, functions for curve of
fastest descent (brachistochrone) and catenary
curve
calculus of variations - useful in fields as diverse
as engineering, financial investment, architecture
and construction, and even space travel
th
18
Century Mathematics
Johann Bernoulli
first derived the

brachistrochrone
curve, using his
calculus of
variation method
th
18
Century Mathematics
Johann Bernoulli
Guillaume de l'Hpital- published a book in

his own name consisting almost entirely of
Johann's lectures
de l'Hpital's Rule - famous rule about
0 0
his sons Nicolaus, Daniel and Johann II, and

grandchildren Jacob II and Johann III, were
all accomplished mathematicians and
teachers
th
18
Century Mathematics
Leonhard
Euler (1707-1783 )
th
18
Century Mathematics
Leonhard Euler
born in Basel, Switzerland, and he studied for a

while under Johann Bernoulli at Basel University
spent his academic life in Russia and Germany,

especially in the burgeoning St. Petersburg of Peter
the Great and Catherine the Great.
collected works comprise nearly 900 books and has

produced on average one mathematical paper
every week
much of the notation used by mathematicians

today was either created, popularized or
standardized by Euler
th
18
Century Mathematics
Leonhard Euler
th
18
Century Mathematics
Leonhard Euler
= 1
-sometimes known as Eulers Identity
- combines arithmetic, calculus, trigonometry
and complex analysis into what has been
called "the most remarkable formula in
mathematics", "uncanny and sublime" and
"filled with cosmic beauty", among other
descriptions.
th
18
Century Mathematics
Leonhard Euler
= +
- Eulers Formula.
- demonstrate the deep relationships
between trigonometry, exponentials and
complex numbers
th
18
Century Mathematics
Leonhard Euler
Basel problem
- calculation of infinite sums
- Bernoullis had tried and failed to solve it
- what was the precise sum of the reciprocals of the
squares of all the natural numbers to infinity i.e. 112 + 122 +
132 + 142 ... (a zeta function using a zeta constant of 2)
- showed that the infinite series was equivalent to an infinite
product of prime numbers, an identity which would later
inspire Riemanns investigation of complex zeta functions
th
18
Century Mathematics
Seven
Bridges of
Knigsberg
Problem
Leonhard Euler
th
18
Century Mathematics
Leonhard Euler
Some
list of theorems and methods

pioneered by Euler
demonstration of geometrical properties
such as Eulers Line and Eulers Circle;
definition of the Euler Characteristic (chi)
for the surfaces of polyhedra
new method for solving quartic equations;
th
18
Century Mathematics
Leonhard Euler
the Prime Number Theorem

proofs (and in some cases disproofs) of
some of Fermats theorems and
conjectures
discovery of over 60 amicable numbers
method of calculating integrals with
complex limits
th
18
Century Mathematics
Leonhard Euler
th
18
Century Mathematics
Leonhard Euler
1766 he accepted an invitation from

Catherine the Great to return to the St.
Petersburg Academy in Russia.
1771 he was marred by tragedy
1773 his dear wife Katharina died.
He
later married Katharina's half-sister, Salome

Abigail
1783 he died from a brain hemorrhage
th
18
Century Mathematics
Christian
Goldbach (1690-1764)
th
18
Century Mathematics
Christian Goldbach
Goldbach Conjecture
- every even integer greater than 2 can be

expressed as the sum of two primes
- every integer greater than 5 can be expressed
as the sum of three primes
Goldbach-Euler Theorem
- the sum of 1/(p 1) over the set of perfect

powers p, excluding 1 and omitting
repetitions, converges to 1
th
18
Century Mathematics
Abraham
de Moivre (1667-1754)
th
18
Century Mathematics
Abraham de Moivre
de Moivre'sformula:
( + ) = cos() + ()
generalized Newtons famous binomial
theorem into the multinomial theorem
pioneered the development of analytic
geometry
work on the normal distribution
probability theory
th
18
Century Mathematics
Joseph
Louis Lagrange (1736-1813 )
th
18
Century Mathematics
joint work on the calculus of variation

contributed to differential equations and
number theory
originate the theory of groups
four-square theorem
Any natural number can be
represented as the sum of four squares.
th
18
Century Mathematics
Lagranges
Theorem or Lagranges Mean

Value Theorem
th
18
Century Mathematics
Pierre-Simon
Laplace (1749-1827 )
th
18
Century Mathematics
Pierre-Simon Laplace
the French Newton

Celestial Mechanics
- translated the geometric study of classical mechanics
to one based on calculus.
work on differential equations and finite

differences
he developed his own version of the so-called
Bayesian interpretation of probability
independently of Thomas Bayes.
th
18
Century Mathematics
Adrien-Marie
Legendre (1752-1833 )
th
18
Century Mathematics
Adrien-Marie Legendre
contributions to statistics, number theory,

abstract algebra and mathematical
analysis
Least squares method for curve-fitting and
linear regression, the quadratic reciprocity
law, the prime number theorem and his
work on elliptic functions
Elements of Geometry
END
of the
th
18 CENTURY

Jean
Robert Argand (1768-1822)

Born
Jean Robert Argand
in Switzerland on 1768. He was a Parisian

bookkeeper and an amateur mathematician
His background and education are mostly
unknown. Since his knowledge of mathematics
was self-taught and he did not belong to any
mathematical organizations, he likely pursued
mathematics as a hobby rather than a profession.
In 1806, he published his own invention and
elaboration of a geometric representation
of complex numbers and the operations upon
them (his major contribution to mathematics)
Jean Robert Argand
Essai
sur une maniere de reprenter les quantits

imaginaires daps les constructions gomriques
(Essay on a method of representing imaginary
quantities)
- discussion of models for generating negative numbers
by repeated subtraction; one used weights removed from a

pan of a beam balance, the other subtracted francs from a
sum of money.
- concluded that distance may be considered apart from
direction, and that whether a negative quantity is
considered real or imaginary depends upon the kind of
quantity measured.
Jean Robert Argand
This initial use of the word imaginary for a

negative number is related to the
mathematical-philosophical debates of
the time as to whether negative numbers
were numbers, or even existed.
- In 1813, it was republished in the French
journal Annales de Mathmatiques. The
Essay discussed a method of
graphing complex numbers via analytical
geometry. It proposed the interpretation of
the value i as a rotation of 90 degrees in
the Argand plane.
-
Jean Robert Argand
He included in the book, the first use of the word

absolute in the sense of the absolute value of a
positive, negative, or complex number; of the bar over a
pair of letters to indicate what is today called a vector.
Later in the Essay, Argand used the term modulus
(module) for the absolute value or the length of a vector
representing a complex number.
His last article appeared in the volume of Annales dated
18151816 and dealt with a problem in combinations. In
it Argand devised the notation (m, n) for the
combinations of m things taken n at a time and the
notation Z(m, n) for the number of such combinations.
Jean Robert Argand
Argand is also renowned for delivering a proof of

the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra in his 1814
work Rflexions sur la nouvelle thorie
d'analyse (Reflections on the new theory of
analysis). It was the first complete and rigorous
proof of the theorem, and was also the first proof
to generalize the fundamental theorem of
algebra to include polynomials with complex
coefficients. In 1978, it was called by The
Mathematical Intelligencer both ingenious and
profound, and was later referenced
in Cauchy's Cours dAnalyse
and Chrystal'sinfluential textbook Algebra.
Jean Robert Argand
Argand recognized the nonrigorous nature of his

reasoning, but he defined his goals as clarifying
thinking about imaginaries by setting up a new view of
them and providing a new tool for research in
geometry.
He used complex numbers to derive several

trigonometric identities, to prove Ptolemys theorem,
and to give a proof of the fundamental theorem of
algebra.
He died on 1822 in Paris.

variste
variste Galois
Galois (1811-1832)
Galois was born on 25 October 1811 to

Nicolas-Gabriel Galois and AdladeMarie (born Demante).
His mother, the daughter of a jurist, was

a fluent reader of Latin and classical
literature and was responsible for her
son's education for his first twelve years
variste Galois
In
October 1823, he entered the Lyce Louisle-Grand, and despite some turmoil in the
school at the beginning of the term (when
about a hundred students were expelled),
Galois managed to perform well for the first
two years, obtaining the first prize in Latin.
He
soon became bored with his studies and,

at the age of 14, he began to take a serious
interest in mathematics.
variste Galois
In 1828, he attempted the entrance examination for

the cole Polytechnique, the most prestigious
institution for mathematics in France at the time.
Without the usual preparation in mathematics, and
failed for lack of explanations on the oral examination.
In that same year, he entered the cole Normale (then

known as l'cole prparatoire), a far inferior institution
for mathematical studies at that time, where he found
some professors sympathetic to him.
variste Galois
In
1829, Galois's first paper, on continued fractions

was published. It was at around the same time that
he began making fundamental discoveries in the
theory of polynomial equations.
He
submitted two papers on this topic to

the Academy of Sciences. Augustin Louis
Cauchy referred these papers, but refused to accept
them for publication for reasons that still remain
unclear.

Galois's
variste Galois
mathematical contributions were published in

full in 1843 when Liouville reviewed his manuscript and
declared it sound. It was finally published in the
OctoberNovember 1846 issue of the Journal de
Mathmatiques Pures et Appliques. The most famous
contribution of this manuscript was a novel proof that
there is no quintic formula that is, that fifth and higher
degree equations are not generally solvable by
radicals.
variste Galois
While many mathematicians before Galois gave consideration to

what are now known as groups, it was Galois who was the first to
use the word group (in French groupe) in a sense close to the
technical sense that is understood today, making him among the
founders of the branch of algebra known as group theory.
He developed the concept that is today known as a normal

subgroup. He called the decomposition of a group into its left and
right cosets a proper decomposition if the left and right cosets
coincide, which is what today is known as a normal subgroup. He
also introduced the concept of a finite field (also known as
a Galois field in his honor), in essentially the same form as it is
understood today.
variste Galois
In his last letter to Chevalier, and attached manuscripts, the

second of three, he made basic studies of linear groups over finite
fields:
He
constructed the general linear group over a prime field,

GL(, p) and computed its order, in studying the Galois group of
the general equation of degree p.
He
constructed the projective special linear group PSL(2,p).

Galois constructed them as fractional linear transforms, and
observed that they were simple except if p was 2 or 3. These
were the second family of finite simple groups, after
the alternating groups.
He
noted the exceptional fact that PSL(2,p) is simple and acts

on p points if and only if p is 5, 7, or 11.
variste Galois
Galois most significant contribution to mathematics by far is his

development of Galois theory which make hailed him as Father
of Modern Algebra
He realized that the algebraic solution to a polynomial equation is

related to the structure of a group of permutations associated
with the roots of the polynomial, the Galois group of the
polynomial.
He found that an equation could be solved in radicals if one can

find a series of subgroups of its Galois group, each one normal in
its successor with abelian quotient, or its Galois group is solvable.
This proved to be a fertile approach, which later mathematicians
adapted to many other fields of mathematics besides the theory
of equations to which Galois originally applied it to.

Georg
Ferdinand Cantor
(1845 1918)
Georg Ferdinand Ludwig Philipp Cantor is a

German mathematician who was born in
1845 in Russia.
His first ten papers were on number theory,

after which he turned to calculus (analysis at
that time). He is best known as the first
mathematician to really understand the
concept of infinity and to give it
mathematical precision.
Georg Cantor
Cantors starting point was to say that it ought to be possible

to add infinity and infinity. He realized that it was actually
possible to add and subtract infinities, and that beyond what
was normally thought of as infinity existed another, larger
infinity, and then other infinities beyond that. In fact, he
showed that there may be infinitely many sets of infinite
numbers - an infinity of infinities - some bigger than others, a
concept which clearly has philosophical, as well as just
mathematical, significance. The sheer audacity of Cantors
theory set off a quiet revolution in the mathematical
community, and changed forever the way mathematics is
approached.
Georg Cantor
In the early 1870s, he realized that the set of natural numbers

and any infinite subset of the natural numbers have the same
number of elements. Same is true with the set of natural
numbers paired to the set of integers and the set of rational
numbers. However, when Cantor considered an infinite series
of decimal numbers, he then proved that the infinity of
decimal numbers is bigger than the infinity of natural numbers.
He coined the word transfinite to distinguish these infinite

numbers from the absolute infinity (which he equated to God).
He used the Hebrew letter aleph to describe the sizes of infinite
sets and developed transfinite arithmetic.
Georg Cantor
Cantor is also responsible for the real origin of set

theory. Cantor showed that there could be infinite
sets of different sizes just as there were different finite
sets. He introduced the concepts of ordinality and
cardinality and the arithmetic of infinite sets.
Cantor died in 1918.

Georg Ferdinand Frobenius
(1849 1917)
He was born on 26 October 1849

in Charlottenburg, a suburb of Berlin
from parents Christian Ferdinand
Frobenius, a Protestant parson, and
Christine Elizabeth Friedrich.
He was a German mathematician, best

known for his contributions to the theory
of elliptic functions, differential
equations and to group theory.
Georg Frobenius
He is known for the famous determinantal identities,

known as Frobenius-Stickelberger formulae,
governing elliptic functions, and for developing the
theory of biquadratic forms.
He was also the first to introduce the notion of rational

approximations of functions (nowadays known as Pad
approximants), and gave the first full proof for
the CayleyHamilton theorem. He also lent his name to
certain differential-geometric objects in
modern mathematical physics, known as Frobenius
manifolds.
Georg Frobenius
In 1867, after graduating, he went to the University of

Gttingen where he began his university studies but he only
studied there for one semester before returning to Berlin, where
he attended lectures by Kronecker, Kummer and Karl
Weierstrass. He received his doctorate (awarded with
distinction) in 1870 supervised by Weierstrass. His thesis,
supervised by Weierstrass, was on the solution of differential
equations.
In 1874, after having taught at secondary school level first at

the Joachimsthal Gymnasium then at the Sophienrealschule,
he was appointed to the University of Berlin as an extraordinary
professor of mathematics.
Georg Frobenius
Group theory was one of Frobenius' principal interests in the second

half of his career. One of his first contributions was the proof of
the Sylow theorems for abstract groups. Earlier proofs had been
for permutation groups. His proof of the first Sylow theorem (on the
existence of Sylow groups) is one of those frequently used today.
Burnside's lemma, sometimes also called Burnside's counting

theorem, the Cauchy-Frobenius lemma or the orbit-counting
theorem, is a result in group theory which is often useful in
taking account of symmetry when counting mathematical objects.
Its various eponyms include William Burnside, George Plya, Augustin
Louis Cauchy, and Ferdinand Georg Frobenius. The result is not due
to Burnside himself, who merely quoted it in his book 'On the Theory of
Groups of Finite Order', attributing it instead to Frobenius (1887)
Georg Frobenius
Frobenius also has proved the following fundamental

theorem: If a positive integer n divides the order |G| of
a finite group G, then the number of solutions of the
equation xn = 1 in G is equal to kn for some positive
integer k. He also posed the following problem: If, in the
above theorem, k = 1, then the solutions of the
equation xn = 1 in G form a subgroup. Many years ago
this problem was solved for solvable groups. Only in
1991, after the classification of finite simple groups, was
this problem solved in general.
Georg Frobenius
More important was his creation of the theory of group

characters and group representations, which are fundamental
tools for studying the structure of groups. This work led to the notion
of Frobenius reciprocity and the definition of what are now
called Frobenius groups. A group G is said to be a Frobenius group
if there is a subgroup H < G such that
All known proofs of that theorem make use of characters. In his first
paper about characters (1896), Frobenius constructed the
character table of the group PSL(2,p) of order (1/2)(p3 p) for all
odd primes p (this group is simple provided p > 3). He also made
fundamental contributions to the representation theory of the
symmetric and alternating groups.
Georg Frobenius
Frobenius introduced a canonical way of turning primes

into conjugacy classes in Galois groups over Q. Specifically,
if K/Q is a finite Galois extension then to each (positive)
prime p which does not ramify in K and to each prime
ideal P lying over p in K there is a unique element g of Gal(K/Q)
satisfying the condition g(x) = xp (mod P) for all integers x of K.
Varying P over p changes g into a conjugate (and every
conjugate of g occurs in this way), so the conjugacy class of g in
the Galois group is canonically associated to p.
This is called the Frobenius conjugacy class of p and any

element of the conjugacy class is called a Frobenius element
of p.

Modern Period (17th-19th Century) On Mathematics

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originalbeschreibung:

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Modern Period (17th-19th Century) On Mathematics

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Modern Period

Napier (1550 - 4 April 1617)

Born in Edinburgh, Scotland,

Used by Johannes Kepler for his Third Law of Planetary Motion:

Simplified large-number calculations

Biomathematics(Modeling Population Growth)

Physics(Radioactive Decay, Astronomy)

Mersenne (8 Sept. 1588 - 1 Sept. 1648)

French theologian, natural

Published works on Music Theory,

Uses of Mersenne primes:

Descartes (31 Mar, 1596 11 Feb, 1650)

The Cartesian Plane

de Fermat (August 17, 1601 January 12, 1665)

Small town amateur mathematician

Inspired by Arithmetica by Diophantus

Contributions on Number Theory, Modern Calculus

Despite showing interest in Mathematics, he

Sworn in by the Grand Chambre in May 1631 thus

Fluent in Latin, Greek, Italian and Spanish, and was

Dominique Fermat (father) wealthy leather

Most of Fermats work was written in letters to

Methodus ad disquirendam maximam et minima and

In these works, Fermat obtained a technique for finding

Fermats Prime Numbers

Two Square Theorem

Fermats Little Theorem

Found by his son in his copy of an

Pascal (June 19, 1623 August 19, 1662)

Known as a child prodigy

Trait du triangle arithmtique ("Treatise

17th Century Mathematics

(Girard) Desargues (February 21, 1591 September 1661)

Newton's Three Laws of Motion

Force and Acceleration

The alteration of motion is ever proportional to the motive force impress'd;

During the Great Plague of 1665-6, he

This process of calculating the slope or derivative

The opposite of differentiation is integration or

Newtons Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

He was perhaps the first to explicitly employ the

Also revived the ancient method of solving

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

invented a practical calculating machine called Stepped

pioneered the use of the binary system.

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

Also developed a very similar theory of

Within the short period of about two

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

Also often considered the most important

Unlike Newton, however, he was more than happy to publish his

Johann Bernoulli (1667-1748)

professor at Basel University

The Art of Conjecture - published in 1713

theory and expected values

- theory of permutations and combinations

published papers on transcendental curves

Johann Bernoulli (1667-1748 )

first derived the

Guillaume de l'Hpital- published a book in

his sons Nicolaus, Daniel and Johann II, and