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Unit : I
Title : Valence
Valence
In chemistry, valence, also known as valency or valency
number, is a measure of the number of chemical bonds
formed by the atoms of a given element.
Over the last century, the concept of valence evolved into valence
bond theory (1927) and then into modern valence bond theory
(1990s).
The etymology of the word "valence" is from 1425, meaning
"extract, preparation," from Latin valentia "strength, capacity," and
the chemical meaning referring to the "combining power of an
element" is recorded from 1884, from German Valenz.
Lecturer N.Muthukrishnan, CARISM, SASTRA University
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Unit : I
Title : Valence
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Title : Valence
Unit : I
Title : Valence
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Title : Valence
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Title : Valence
IUPAC definition
The International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC) has made several attempts to
arrive at an unambiguous definition of valence.
The current version, adopted in 1994, is:
The maximum number of univalent atoms
(originally hydrogen or chlorine atoms) that
may combine with an atom of the element
under consideration, or with a fragment, or
for which an atom of this element can be
substituted.
Lecturer N.Muthukrishnan, CARISM, SASTRA University
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Unit : I
Title : Valence
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Title : Valence
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Atom
Title : Valence
Symbol
Outer Shell
H Compound
Hydrogen
H2
Helium
He
Full
None
Lithium
Li
LiH
Beryllium
Be
BeH2
Boron
BH3
Carbon
CH4
Nitrogen
NH3
Oxygen
H2O
Fluorine
HF
10
Neon
Ne
Full
None
11
Sodium
Na
NaH
12
Magnesium
Mg
MgH2
13
Aluminium
Al
AlH3
14
Silicon
Si
SiH4
15
Phosphorus
PH3
16
Sulphur
H2S
17
Chlorine
Cl
HCl
18
Argon
Ar
Full
None
19
Potasium
KH
20
Calcium
Ca
CaH2
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Title : Valence
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4
Be
12
Mg
20
Ca
38
Sr
56
Ba
88
Ra
21
Sc
39
Y
*
22
Ti
40
Zr
72
Hf
** 104
Rf
23
V
41
Nb
73
Ta
105
Db
57
La
89
** Actinides
Ac
58
Ce
90
Th
* Lanthanides
24
Cr
42
Mo
74
W
106
Sg
25
Mn
43
Tc
75
Re
107
Bh
26
Fe
44
Ru
76
Os
108
Hs
27
Co
45
Rh
77
Ir
109
Mt
10
11
28
Ni
46
Pd
78
Pt
110
Ds
29
Cu
47
Ag
79
Au
111
Rg
59 60 61 62 63
Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu
91 92 93 94 95
Pa U Np Pu Am
64
Gd
96
Cm
12
30
Zn
48
Cd
80
Hg
112
Uub
13
5
B
13
Al
31
Ga
49
In
81
Tl
113
Uut
14
6
C
14
Si
32
Ge
50
Sn
82
Pb
114
Uuq
15
7
N
15
P
33
As
51
Sb
83
Bi
115
Uup
16
8
O
16
S
34
Se
52
Te
84
Po
116
Uuh
65 66 67 68 69
Tb Dy Ho Er Tm
97 98 99 100 101
Bk Cf Es Fm Md
17
18
2
He
9 10
F Ne
17 18
Cl Ar
35 36
Br Kr
53 54
I Xe
85 86
At Rn
117 118
Uus Uuo
70
Yb
102
No
71
Lu
103
Lr
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Valences
Zero
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
Six
Seven
Unit : I
Title : Valence
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Title : Valence
Quantum Mechanics
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Title : Valence
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Title : Valence
Maximum
Number of
Electrons
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Title : Valence
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Title : Valence
Symbol
Atomic Number
s Shell
p Shell
d Shell
f Shell
Hydrogen
Helium
He
Lithium
Li
Beryllium
Be
Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon
Ne
10
Sodium
Na
11
Magnesium
Mg
12
Aluminium
Al
13
Silicon
Si
14
Phosphorus
15
Sulphur
16
Chlorine
Cl
17
Argon
Ar
18
Potasium
19
Calcium
Ca
20
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Electrovalent Bonds
Now look at the combination of the Lithium atom (Li) with
Flourine (F) to form the compound Lithium Fluoride
(LiF).
The drawing below shows the two atoms before they react
together.
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Covalent Bonds
Let us look at the combination of two Hydrogen
atoms with an atom of Oxygen.
These appear below.
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For one type of atom, this can vary from one molecule to another.
If you put four Sulphur atoms together then the whole molecule usually has
two extra electrons (Valence 2-)
Since sulfur has valencies of 2, 4, and 6, the sulfur dioxide molecule could
be formulated as (I) or (II):
Formula (II) is accepted because sulfur
dioxide does not behave like a
peroxide, and microwave spectroscopy
gives the OSO angle as 119.5 and
the SO distance as 1.43 .
The latter is similar to the distance in
molecules that have to be written with
a double SO bond, e.g. 1.45 in
SOCl2.
Three-membered rings, with angles of
60, are unusual in molecules.
Lecturer N.Muthukrishnan, CARISM, SASTRA University
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Unit : I
Title : Valence
One method around the problem is to specify the valence for each
individual compound: although it removes much of the generality of
the concept, this approach has given rise to the idea of oxidation
numbers and to lambda notation in the IUPAC nomenclature of
organic chemistry.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
The individual bond valences in turn are calculated from the observed
bond lengths.
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Electronegativity eV,
Arsenic (As)
Unit : I
Title : Valence
The most common and stable forms of arsenic in nature are arsenite arsenic (+3), and arsenate - arsenic (+5). Others are -3, 0, +2.
Arsenic (+3) is arsenic with three fewer electrons than protons, giving it
a plus three positive charge; arsenic (+5) is arsenic with five fewer
electrons than protons, giving it a plus five positive charge.
These two forms can be readily converted back and forth both in nature
and inside our bodies depending on the local chemical environment such as changes in acidity (pH), the presence of oxygen or iron, and
what other molecules are present.
Arsenite is believed to be slightly more toxic than arsenate, but since
they are so easily inter-converted, both forms are considered a health
risk.
Arsenic +5, +3 valancies has a particular affinity for sulfur and is often
found joined to sulfur in ores.
Lecturer N.Muthukrishnan, CARISM, SASTRA University
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Few examples
Arsenic trioxide is an element like carbon and oxygen it does not break
down in the environment into simpler substances.
Inorganic forms of arsenic are more toxic to humans since they are less
stable and may allow arsenic to interact with important cellular molecules.
Recently, scientists have found that a simple methylated form of arsenic
called mono-methylarsenic (III) can cause cancer in animals. On the other
hand, fish and other animals contain a highly methylated form of arsenic
called arsenobetaine or "fish arsenic" which is essentially non-toxic and is
readily eliminated by our bodies.
In the early 1990s, an unprecedented arsenic poisoning in Bangladesh
brought international attention to the toxic effects of naturally occurring
arsenic in drinking water.
Tobacco itself contained high levels of arsenic until recently, due to the
extensive use of arsenic-based pesticides in tobacco farming.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Chromium
Chromium, a "transition" metal, is of intermediate atomic weight Common
forms are chromium-0, which has no charge, chromium +2, +3, and +6,
which has charges of plus 2, 3, 6 respectively.
Chrome metal (the form chromium-0) is the element that makes steel
"stainless."
The primary form of chromium found in the environment is chromium+3,
which is also quite stable. This common form of chromium is always
found in a complex with other chemical partners such as oxygen or
chlorine. In these compounds it is very "inert to substitution.
Chromium+6 is easily and rapidly reduced to chromium+3 by many
chemicals and conditions, so it is not very stable in the environment. Like
chromium+3, chromium+6 is usually found in chemical complexes with
other elements, for example bound with several oxygen atoms to form
chromate.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Iron
In an aqueous or watery solution, iron can form two stable ions or charged
particles.
These particles, Fe II and Fe III, have positive charges of +2 and +3
respectively.
These large positive charges (+3) makes them ideal for making and breaking
bonds.
For this reason, iron is a key component in numerous enzymes in the body.
When iron enters the body through food or drink, it must be metabolized
chemically processed and delivered to the blood.
At a pH of 7 (the normal pH of human blood is pH 7.4) iron readily ionizes
into the Fe II and Fe III forms and then quickly combines with hydrogen and
oxygen.
This series of reactions makes the metal biologically unavailable.
Transferrin's particular chemical configuration grabs iron and safely protects
it from any further chemical changes.
Lecturer N.Muthukrishnan, CARISM, SASTRA University