Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
propagation
Amit Gupta
INTRODUCTION
Medium ranging up to 80km is not uniform throughout
the day and night. It varies abruptly due to temperature
variation and wind conditions.
The ionosphere is uniform throughout day & night.
Hence it is used for communication
For obtaining a satisfactory wave propagation link the
following parameters are to be considered:
1. Propagation characteristics
2. Type of Propagation
3. Structure & Properties of propagation media
Properties of radio waves
Refraction
Reflection
Diffraction
Interference
Refraction
Occurs when the waves pass from
one medium to another whose
densities are different
Coefficient of reflection is less than 1
Air
Reflection
source intensity I
incident reflected
wave front
normal n wave front
Qi Qr
surface
element
Reflection
Reflection is the abrupt reversal in
direction
Caused by any conductive medium
such as
• Metal surfaces or
• Earth’s surface
There will normally be a shift in
phase
Coefficient of reflection is less than 1
Ground wave propagation
These wave guided along the surface
of earth
These waves are produced by
vertical antennas
Maximum range depends not only on
surface impedances
• More conductive the more attenuated
• Better over water
Attenuation related to
frequency
• Loses increase with increase in
frequency
• Not very effective at frequencies
above 2Mhz
• Very reliable communication link
• Reception is not affected by daily
or seasonal weather changes
Applications of Ground Wave
Propagation
In AM radio broadcasting operating in
MW band.
The VLF transmission is used for ship
4π σsin φ
R= ....(1)
λ
R = measure of roughness
σ = s tan dard deviation of surface irregularities from mean height
φ = angle of incidence
λ = wavelength
Depending upon the value of R is obtained the
surface is smooth or rough.
R<0.1 smooth surface
R>10
The earth is not a perfect conductor or a rough
surface perfect dielectric. It posses some
conductivity. This factor must be taken into
account while measuring the reflection of the
waves from the earth surface
∂E
∇× H = ε + σE ........(2)
∂t
E = E 0 e j ωt ........(3)
∂E
= E0 .( jω )e jωt = jωE
∂t
∂E
= jω E ........(4)
∂t
∂E
∂E ∂t ∂E σ ∂E
∇× H = ε +σ = ε +
∂t jω ∂t jω ∂t
σ ∂E
∇ × H = ε + ........(5)
jω ∂t
σ
let ε ' = ε +
jω
∂E
∇× H = ε' ........(6)
∂t
σ σ
ε '= ε + = ε 1 + ........(7)
jω jω ε
Radio waves radiated from the transmitting
antenna in a direction toward the
ionosphere
Long distance transmissions
Sky wave strike the ionosphere, is refracted
back to ground, strike the ground, reflected
back toward the ionosphere, etc until it
reaches the receiving antenna
Skipping is he refraction and reflection of
sky waves
Now let us determine the reflection coefficients separately for
the horizontal and vertical polarization.
We will assume that the earth surface is partially conducting
dielectric and wave incident at the surface of earth through
the air. Hence, dielectric constant of the medium is 1.For
medium i.e. surface of earth the dielectric constant is …….
Let the height of Tx and Rx antenna be h1 and h2.
Reflection coefficient for horizontal
Polarization
horizontalpolarization
Er ε cos θ1 − ε 2 − ε1 sin 2 θ1
= 1 ........(8)
Ei ε1 cos θ1 − ε 2 − ε1 sin 2 θ1
σ
ε 0 cosθ − ε + − ε 0 sin 2 θ
E jω
RH = r = ........(9)
Ei σ
ε 0 cos θ + ε + − ε 0 sin 2 θ
jω
ε 0 dielectric of free space
σ
ε + dielectric of earth
jω
ψ = 900 − θ
θ = 900 −ψ
ε jσ
ε 0 sinψ − − − cos 2 ψ
ε 0 ω ε0
RH =
ε jσ
ε 0 sinψ + − − cos 2 ψ
ε 0 ω ε0
ε jσ
sinψ − − − cos 2 ψ
ε
0 ω ε
0
RH = ........(10)
ε jσ
sinψ + − − cos 2 ψ
ε 0 ω ε0
ε = ε rε 0
jσ
sinψ − ε r − − cos 2 ψ
ω ε0
RH =
jσ
sinψ + ε r − − cos 2 ψ
ω ε
0
σ
Let X =
ω ε0
sinψ − ( ε r − jX ) − cos2 ψ
RH = ........(11)
sinψ + ( ε r − jX ) − cos2 ψ
Re flection coefficient forvertical polarization
ε2 ε2
cos θ1 − − sin 2 θ1
Er ε1 ε1
= ........(12)
Ei ε ε2
2 cos θ1 + − sin 2 θ1
ε1 ε1
σ σ
ε + ε +
jω jω
cos θ − − sin θ
2
ε0 ε0
Er
RV = = ........(13)
Ei σ σ
ε + ε +
jω jω
cos θ + − sin θ
2
ε0 ε0
ε0 dielectric cons tan t of free space
σ
ε + dielectric cons tan t of earth
jω
ε jσ ε jσ
− cos θ − − − sin 2 θ
Er ε 0 ε 0ω ε 0 ε 0ω
RV = = ........(14)
Ei ε jσ ε jσ
− cos θ + − − sin 2 θ
ε 0 ε 0ω ε 0 ε 0ω
cosψ = cos(90 − θ ) = sin θ
sinψ = sin(90 − θ ) = cos θ
ε jσ ε jσ
− sinψ − − − cos 2 ψ
Er ε 0 ε 0ω ε 0 ε 0ω
RV = = ........(15)
Ei ε jσ ε jσ
− sinψ + − − cos 2 ψ
ε 0 ε 0ω ε 0 ε 0ω
εr
ε = ε rε 0
σ
Let X =
ω ε0
( ε r − jX ) sinψ − ( ε r − jX ) − cos 2 ψ
RH = ........(16)
( ε r − jX ) sinψ + ( ε r − jX ) − cos 2 ψ
SURFACE AND SPACE WAVE
Sommerfeld solved the problem of radiation from a vertical antenna above
the plane earth having a finite conductivity.
Acc. to Sommerfeld we can divide the ground wave field strength in to 2
parts i.e. space wave and surface wave.
The surface wave can be used for propagation at large distances above
the earth where as surface wave is used most near the earth surface,
At large distances from the dipole, the higher order terms that contain
coefficients 1/R1 & 1/R2 can be neglected.
surface wave and space wave
e − jβR1 RV e − jβR2 Fe − jβR2
EZ = j 30 βdl cos 2 ψ + (
+ (1 − RV ) 1 − u 2 + u 4 cos 2 ψ ) ........(1)
R1 R2 R2
e − jβR1 RV e − jβR2 Fe − jβR2 sin 2 ψ
Eρ = j 30 βdl sin ψ cosψ + − cosψ (1 − RV ) u 1 − u 2 cos 2 ψ 1 + ...(2)
R1 R2 R2 2
EZ z component of the electric field
Eρ radial component of the electric field
RV plane wave reflction coefficient
R1 , R2 Dis tan cesfromdipole and
its image to field poo int
F Attenuation function
1
u2 =
ε r − jX
ε
εr = relative dielectric of earth
εV
1.8 − 10 4 σ mho / m
X=
f MHz
σ = conductivity of the earth
Etotalspace = Eψ ( space ) = E 2 Z ( space) + E 2 ρ ( surface )
e − jβR1 RV e − jβR2
Etotalspace = j 30 βIdl cosψ +
R1 R2
e − jβR1 RV e − jβR2
Etotalspace = j 30 βIdl cosψ + ........(3)
1 R R2
2
e − jβR2 sin 2 ψ
Eρ = j 30 βdl (1 − RV ) F . 1 − 2u 2 + cos 2 ψ .u 2 1 + ........(4)
R2 2
SURFACE WAVE
Surface propagation is preferred for VLF and LF in which max. power is
maintain along the earth surface using the principle of diffraction.
Polarization
Vertical polarization is used for surface wave propagation in which the E is
maintained normal to earth’s surface to reduce the attenuation due to
earth’s conduction. The ground wave induces charges in the earth
surface which travel with the wave and so constitute a current. Any
horizontal field component is nullified by earth’s conduction. The earth’s
surface can be represented by a leaky capacitance shunted across a
resistor. Earth is characterized by conductivity (Sigma) and dielectric
constant (epsilon). Higher the conductivity greater the distance of
communication.
Surface wave
SURFACE WAVE TILTING
2
∧
k : unit vector parallel to vertical dipole
∧
r : unit vector parpendicular to vertical dipole
R : dis tan ce from dipole to po int
F : Attenuation function
{
F = 1 − j π ωe −ω erfc j ω [ ( )]}
ω=
(
− jβRu 2 1 − u 2 cos 2 ψ ) 1 + sinψ
2 u 1 − u cos ψ
2 2
1
u2 =
ε r − jX
18 ×103σ
X=
f MHz
( )
∞
2
∫ dV
2
erfc j ω = e −V
ω j ω
surface wave from vertical dipole
A = F = 1 − j π ωe −ω erfc j ω [ ( )] ψ =0
A = F = 1 − j π 01 e − p1 [erfc( j p )]
1
where p1 isthevalueof ω at ψ = 0
−b
∴ ω ψ =0 = p1 = pe
p = numerical dis tan ce
b = phase cons tan t
( )
2
− jβ R 1 − u cos ψ 1 + sinψ
2 2
V= 2
2u u 1 − u cos ψ
2 2
e − j ( βR −ωt ) ∧ ∧
Esurface = j 30 βIdl. cos φ sin ψ ( 1 − RV ) ψ + sin φ ( 1 + Rh ) φ ....(2)
R
∧ ∧ ∧
k ,ψ and φ
Rh : plane wave reflection factor for horizontal polarization
RV : plane wave reflection factor for var tical polarization
groundwaveatttenuationfactorA
p −( 5 / 8)
A ≅ A1 − sin b e
2
b
2 + 0.3 p
A1 ≅
2 + p + 0.6 p 2
p
A ≅ e −0.43 p + 0.01 p 2
surface wave from horizontal dipole
Esurface =
R
{
j 30β Idle − j ( βR −ωt )
}
cos φ (u − 1 − u 2 cos 2 ψ ) (1 − RV ) F
1 − sin 4 ψ −
(1 − Rh ) G ρ∧
sin 2
ψ ∧ ( 1 − R ) u 2
F
cosψ 1 +
k + u 1 − u 2 cos 2 ψ V
2 1 − u 2 cos 2 ψ
{ [ (
G = 1 − j πV e −V erfc j V )]}
πR X
p= .
λ cos b'
b = 180 − b'
18 × 103 σ
X=
f MHz
ε −1
b' = tan −1 r
X
Field strength of surface
wave
Energy that’s reaches the receiver by two waves
through direct wave and through ground reflected
wave.
Direct wave travels between transmitting and
receiving antenna directly over path TxRx. The
direct wave is called free space wave
The ground reflected wave travels over the path
TxORx. It involves reflection via surface of ground.
Field at the receiving antenna Rx is vector sum of
fields due to both the waves.
FIELD STRENGTH OF SPACE
WAVE
2 E0 2hs hr
Field strength of receiver = sin ...(1)
d λd
λ : wavelength
d : dis tan cebetweenanteenas
hs : heightoftransmittingantenna
hr : heightofreceivingantenna
E0 : fieldstrengthofdirectwave
Forl arg edis tan ces,
2hs hr
< 0.5
λd
2h h 2h h
sin s r ≈ s r
λd λd
substituti ngineqn(1)
2 E0 2hs hr
Field strength of receiver =
d λd
4πhs hr E0
Field strength of receiver = ...(2)
λd 2
Space Wave
Two types
• Direct
• Ground reflected
Direct Wave
Limited to “line-of sight”
transmission distances
Antenna height and curvature of
d = 2rht + 2rhr = 2r [ ht + hr ]
= 2 × 6370 × 103 [ ht + hr ]
= 12.74 ×106 [ ht + hr ]
[ ]
= 3.57 × 103 ht + hr meters = 3.57 ht + hr km [ ]