Predictivemaintenance 140114170620 Phpapp02 - 2

Fundamentals of Predictive Maintenance
Introduction To Predictive
Maintenance
January 2008
Introduction
Ejercicios de Qu Pasa Si? y de Diagnstico y Solucin de Problemas
The purpose of this course is to

introduce and provide individuals
with an overview of predictive
maintenance and a basic
understanding of the methods and
tools required..
Objectives
This course will present the following topics:
Define predictive maintenance programs

Define maintenance planning requirements and
review Critical Path Method (CPM)
Examine the principles of Vibration Theory and
Analysis.
Examine the basics of Lubrication and Analysis
(Tribology).
Examine the basics of Ultrasonic Analysis
Examine the basics of Thermographic Analysis
Examine the principles of Electrical Insulation
Testing
Define inspection and performance
measurement techniques
Agenda
Predictive Maintenance
Maintenance Planning
Vibration Analysis
Performance Monitoring
Thermal Analysis
Agenda
Lubrication and Tribology (Fluid

Analysis)
Non-destructive Testing and Inspection
Ultrasonic Measurement
Insulation Testing
Balancing
Review
Predictive
Maintenance
Objectives
Define preventive maintenance.

Define predictive maintenance.
Define patterns of failure
Define condition monitoring
Terms
PM means Preventive Maintenance

PdM means Predictive Maintenance
PPM or P/PM means
CMMS means Computerized
Maintenance Management System
How to View Maintenance

Engineering
Economic
Management
What else?
PM
10
PM (Preventive Maintenance) is a series

of tasks which are performed at
sequence of time, quantity of production,
equipment hours, mileage or condition
for the purpose of:
Extending equipment life
Detect critical wear or impending
breakdown
PdM
11
PdM (Predictive Maintenance) is any

inspection carried out with technological
tools to detect when failures will occur.
Misconceptions about PM
12
PM is the only way to determine when

and what will break down.
PM systems are the same
PM is extra work/costs more.
Unskilled people can do PM tasks
PM is obsolete due to new technology
PM will eliminate breakdowns
Task Lists
The task list is the heart of the PM

system.
13
What to do
What to use
What to look for
How to do it
When to do it
Common Tasks
1. Inspection
14
7. Take Readings
2. Predictive Maintenance 8. Lubrication

3.Cleaning
9. Scheduled Replacement
4. Tightening
10. Interview Operators
5. Operate
11. Analysis
6. Adjustments
Patterns of Failure
15
Random
Infant mortality
Increasing
Increasing then stable
Ending mortality
Bathtub
Bathtub Chart
Break In
Or
Start -up
Number of Failures
Critical
wear point
Normal Life
Time
16
Break Down
Cycle
Predictive Maintenance - PdM

What do we mean by Predictive

Maintenance?
17
to declare or indicate in advance
PdM Definitions
18
Any inspection (condition based) activity

on the PM task list is predictive.
Condition
Predictive Maintenance is a way to view
data
PdM Program
A Predictive Maintenance programs is the

active condition monitoring approach
19
This requires a program to:

Regularly monitor the mechanical condition
of all critical production equipment.
Identify outstanding problems.
Equipment Condition Monitoring
20
Vibration analysis.
Thermography..
Fluid analysis (tribology).
Visual inspection.
Operational-dynamics analysis.
Electrical monitoring.
Failure analysis.
Condition Monitoring
21
Temperature
Vibration
Changes in noise or sound
Visually observed changes and problems
Temperature
22
Vibration
23
Screwdriver
Listen
Vibration
Probe
Vibration Problems
Many vibration problems can be solved by

studying the history of the machine:
24
operational changes
maintenance changes
Talk to the operators and maintenance

people, and review the maintenance
records.
Knowledge of the machine and its
internal components will be of value in this
diagnosis
Sound/Noise
Listening
Sound Measurements
Sound Intensity and the Human Ear
Change in
Sound Density
Human Ear Response
1 dB
Detect change under controlled conditions
3 dB 5 dB
Noticeable difference in loudness
6 dB
Significant increase in loudness
10 dB
Appears almost twice as loud to the human ear
10 dB 20 dB
Unbelievably louder
Example: a 6 dB change in sound intensity will be a significant increase in

loudness or a 10 dB change in sound intensity is 3.162 x sound pressure, or
almost twice as loud as the original sound heard.
25
Sight
Loose
Bearing
Housing
Loose
Bolts
Cracked
Housing
26
Seal
Problem
Leaking
Lubrication
Summary
27
Review Objectives
Question and Answer session
Maintenance
Planning
Objectives
29
Define Maintenance Improvement and

Reliability Programs (MIRP)
Define Critical Path Method (CPM)
Define Program Evaluation and Review
Technique (PERT)
Maintenance Program Objectives

The primary objectives of any maintenance

programs activities include:
30
To ensure that the equipment operates safely and

relatively trouble-free for long periods of time.
To maximize the availability of machinery and
equipment necessary to meet the planned
production and operational objectives.
To consistently maintain the plant equipment in
order to minimize wear and premature
deterioration.
To make the equipment reliable so it can be
counted on to perform to set standards and
conditions.
Maintenance Plans
31
Long range planning

Short or Mid-range planning
Immediate planning
Maintenance Improvement and

Reliability Programs
32
The following ten steps outline a plan

when a company is considering
developing an effective Maintenance
Improvement and Reliability Program
(MIRP).
1- Initialization
33
Step 1: Begin by initiating a total

maintenance approach. Production and
maintenance must collectively work
together.
The maintenance department has to be
viewed as being an integral part of the
organization.
2 - Clear Vision
34
Step 2: Establish a clear vision by

having the employees and management
identify the problems.
Then specify the goals and objectives
that must be set in order to achieve
success.
3 - Analyze
Step 3: Analyze the organization.
35
Will the organization, as a whole, support

the type of improvements required?
If not, consider changing the organizational
structure and/or redesign the system to
meet the identified needs.
Review the production and operational
policies and procedures, as they may not be
suited to the maintenance improvement and
reliability program.
4 - Develop
Step 4: Begin to develop an action

plan.
36
Identify what is going to be attempted, who

is to be involved, what are the resources
required, etc.
Action plans take on many different forms,
but it is important that the plan contain
inputs drawn from the reviews and analysis
rather than from complaints.
5 - Assess
Step 5: Assess the condition of the

equipment and facilities.
37
Be objective in the assessment.

Determine which equipment requires
immediate attention.
6 - Select
38
Step 6: Select the appropriate maintenance

program. is a computerized maintenance
system needed?
What technique will be employed, - reactive,
preventive or predictive maintenance?
Determine the order maintenance activities will be
carried out, first, then second, etc.?
What type of reporting system will be used to track
and record the data collected when measuring the
performance of each piece of equipment?
7 - Measure
39
Step 7: Measure equipment condition.

When measuring for equipment condition
which method(s) will be considered:
vibration analysis?
fluid analysis?
non-destructive testing?
performance monitoring methods?
8 - Prepare
Step 8: Prepare the maintenance

personnel.
40
As the maintenance program activities and

methods are implemented ensure that the
maintenance personnel are:
trained to understand the program
why the activities and methods are performed.
Without this step no type of maintenance

improvement and reliability program will
succeed.
9 - Monitor
41
Step 9: Monitor equipment and machinery

effectiveness to the detail the maintenance
program requires.
Monitor for:
performance
reliability
quality
Over time, the recorded information can be

used to evaluate the machinery and
equipment condition and situation.
This is an on-going activity of any quality
maintenance program.
10 - Review
42
Step 10: Initiate periodic reviews

Equipment and machinery effectiveness is
based on scheduled predictive and preventive
maintenance activities.
The review of these activities may indicate common
problems and trends which identify any design or
operational changes required.
Include engineering, maintenance and production
personnel in these periodic reviews.
Ensure that action plans develop from these
review sessions, not just complaints.
Critical Path Method - CPM

43
Flow chart method of representing

specific job activities of a project
Questions to ask:
How long will it take to complete the
project?
Which tasks determine total project time?
Which activity times should be shortened or
how many resources should be allocated to
each activity?
Why use CPM?

44
Which tasks must be carried out

Where parallel activity can be done
Shortest time of a project
What resources are needed
Sequence of tasks
Scheduling and timing
Priorities
Building a chart
45
List tasks
and relation
ships
Create start
node
Sequentially
arrange all tasks
from start
Draw arrow
from start to
first task
Repeat process
from successors
to all tasks
Check for missed

relationships
Example chart
Earliest start time followed

by latest start time
TURBINE OVERHAUL
(EXAMPLE)
54-54
8-52
11
Estimated job time
12
57-57
60-60
3
13
14
6-6
46-46
40
10
Critical job time
41-49
2
7
4
47-55
4-4
0-0
36
16
5-13
44-53
15
52-60
2
16
17
2
10-51
14-56
19
20
70-70
10
62-62
49-57
18-60
4
CRITICAL PATH: 1 - 2 9 10 12 13 14 19 - 20
46
18
Task durations
47
Early Start
Early Finish
Late Start
Late Finish
Example Table of Times

48
Work
Segment
Number
Work Description
Estimated
Job time
Earliest
Start
Time
Latest
Start
Time
Earliest
Finish
Time
1-2
Check Stand by
Unit No:
2-3
Check Rebuild
Calibrate
gauges
10
Dismantle Unit
No:____.
Casing
Dismantle Unit
No:____
Rotor
2-5
2-9
3-4
Inspect Clean
Control Lines
Latest
Finish
Time
Float
Critical
Work
14
14
60
20
60
42
14
56
18
62
42
Program Evaluation and Review

Technique
49
The Program Evaluation and Review

Technique (PERT) is a network model
that allows for randomness in activity
completion times. It has the potential to
reduce both the time and cost required to
complete a project.
PERT was developed in the late 1950s for
the U.S. Navys Polaris project having
thousands of contractors.
50
A PERT chart is a tool that facilitates decision

making; The first draft of a PERT chart will number its
events sequentially in 10s (10, 20, 30, etc.) to allow
the later insertion of additional events.
Two consecutive events in a PERT chart are linked by
activities
The events are presented in a logical sequence and
no activity can commence until its immediately
preceding event is completed.
The planner decides which milestones should be
PERT events and also decides their proper
sequence.
A PERT chart may have multiple pages with many
sub-tasks.
Terminology
51
Critical Path
Critical Activity
Lead time
Lag time
Slack
Fast tracking
Crashing critical path
Float
Pert Activity
52
A PERT activity: is the actual

performance of a task. It consumes time,
it requires resources
Optimistic Time (O)
Pessimistic Time (P)
Most likely time (M)
Expected time (TE)
TE = (O + 4M + P) 6
Implementing PERT
53
First, determine the tasks that the

project requires and the order in which
they must be completed.
Activity
Predecessor
Opt.
O
Norm.
M
Pess.
P
TE
(o + 4m + p)/6
--
4.00
--
5.33
5.17
10
6.33
b, c
5.17
4.50
5.17
Chart
Once this step is complete, one can

draw a Gantt chart or a network diagram
54
PERT Network Diagram

55
40
F
t=1 mo
D
10
t=3 mo
A
30
t=2 mo
E
C
t=4 mo
20
t=3 mo
50
Hasse Diagram
56
Summary
57
Review Objectives
Vibration
Analysis
Course Objectives
59
Define the need for analysis

Define the cause and effects of
equipment vibration
State how vibration is measured
Benefits from Vibration

Analysis
Identifies early stages of machine

defects such as:
60
Unbalance of Rotating Parts

Misalignment of Couplings &
Bearings
Bent Shafts
Bad Bearings Anti Friction Type
Bad Drive Belts and Drive Chains
Worn, Eccentric, or Damaged
Gears
Provides for time to plan

maintenance activities
Saves Cost of Unnecessary
Repairs
Evaluates work done
Loose or broken parts

Torque Variations
Improper Lubricant
Hydraulic or Aerodynamic
Forces
Rubbing
Electrical problems
Resonance
Vibration CbM Philosophy

Based on three principles:
61
All rotating equipment vibrates

Vibration increases/changes as equipment
condition deteriorates
Vibration can be accurately measured and
interpreted
Causes of Vibration:
62
Forces that change in direction with time (e.g.,

Rotating Unbalance)
Forces that change in amplitude or intensity
with time (e.g., Motor Problems)
Frictional Forces (e.g., Rotor Rub)
Forces that cause impacts (e.g., Bearing
Defects)
Randomly generated forces (e.g., Turbulence)
When Condition of Machinery

Deteriorates
Dynamic forces increase, cause

increase in vibration
63
Wear, corrosion, or buildup of deposits increases

unbalance
Settling of foundation may increase misalignment
forces
The stiffness of the machine reduces,

thus increasing vibration
Loosening or stretching of mounting bolts

Broken weld
Crack in the foundation
Deterioration of grouting
Vibration Demonstration
Vibration-Single spring and weight in

suspension
Spring
Upper Limit
Weight at
complete rest
Weight
64
Neutral Position
Lower Limit
Time
A Word About Bearings
The vast majority of bearings are one of two types: Fluid

Film Bearings and Rolling Element, or Anti-friction
Bearings
Accelerometer
65
Eddy Current Probe
Bearing
Bearing
bearing
housing
bearing
housing
Soft Metal
(Babbitt)
Oil Wedge
(load zone)
FLUID FILM: Capable of

supporting very high loads, high
temperatures, high speed.
Expensive and associated rotor
dynamics are very complex.
ROLLING ELEMENT: Low cost,

simple to apply. But are capable of
only moderate speeds and
relatively light loads. Rotor
dynamics arent bad but
diagnostics can be complex due to
all those spinning balls!
Sensors & Units
Displacement
mils (0.001 inch)

m (0.001 millimeter)
Velocity
ips (inches/sec)
Velometers &
Integrating
Accelerometers
mm/s (millimeters/sec)
Acceleration
gs
m/s2(meters/sec2)
66
Eddy Current
Probes
integrate
All sensors are designed to measure one of the three
Accelerometers
Operation of Piezoelectric
Velocity Pickup
Integrator
67
Insulator
Conductive
Plate
Insulator
Amplifier
Preload
Bolt
Inertial
Mass
Piezoelectric
Crystal
A Non-Contacting Pickup
(NCPU) System
68
Theory of Operation - NCPU

NCPU system works on the eddy

current principle.
The tip of the probe contains a coil
of wire that is connected to a driver.
When energized, the probe induces
eddy currents in the rotating shaft.
RF in
SHAFT
Cutaway of
NCPU Probe Tip
NCPU coil
69
Eddy currents
Generated magnetic field

Displacement
System Operation
70
Probe Driver
Detector
(-)
V
O
L
T
S
Oscillator
24
20
16
12
8
4
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
MILS
80
90 100 110 120
NCPU

System Static Output
71
(-)
V
O
L
T
S
Linear Range
24
20
16
12
Gap Voltage
8
Gap
10
20
30
40
50
60
MILS
70
80
90
100
110
120

System Dynamic Output
72
(-)
V
O
L
T
S
24
Vibration Amplitude
20
Average Gap Voltage
16
12
8
4
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
TIME (ms)
90
100
110
120
There are five measurable

characteristics of vibration.
73
Frequency
Displacement (or amplitude)
Velocity
Acceleration
Phase
VIBRATION AMPLITUDE
OVER TIME
74
Amplitude
Time
Peak to Peak Displacement
VIBRATION VELOCITY
75
Peak velocity/Zero acceleration

Amplitude
Zero velocity/Peak acceleration
Time
Zero velocity/Peak acceleration
Period (Time)
VIBRATION FREQUENCY
76
Amplitude
Frequency = 1 / Period
Time
Period (Time)
Example:
If it takes .1 seconds for one cycle (the Period), then
Frequency = 1 / .1 or 10 Cycles Per Second (Hertz)
VIBRATION SIGNAL
DETECTION
77
Amplitude
Peak
RMS
Peak to Peak
Time
For Sinusoidal Motion.
78
Peak to Peak = 2 x Peak

RMS = .707 x Peak
Amplitude
RMS
Peak to Peak
Peak
Time
Common Vibration Amplitude

Units
ENGLISH UNITS
Displacement
Mils (0.001 inch)
Peak-to-Peak
Velocity
Inches/sec Peak
Inches/sec RMS
Acceleration
G Peak
79
METRIC UNITS
Displacement
m (0.001 millimeter)
Peak-to-Peak
Velocity
mm/sec Peak
mm/sec RMS
Acceleration
Meters/Sec2 Peak
RELATIVE PHASE
80
Comparative phase readings show how the

machine is vibrating
Note how relative phase causes significant
changes in vibration seen at the coupling with
little to no change in the amplitudes measured
at points 1 and 2
Frequency Characteristics
81
Synchronous Vibration
Asynchronous Vibration
Natural Frequency
Resonance
Resonance
Spring System Pillow Block
82
Shaft coupling
Pillow block
housing
Ball bearing
Flex
Spring System Machine Base

Machine Base
Flex
V-belt
pulley
Critical Speed
83
Critical Speed is defined as being a type

of resonance which occurs when a shaft
or rotating machine component revolves
at a speed close to its natural frequency .
Vibration Indicators
84
Vibration Indicators
85
Summary (Amplitude,
Frequency, Phase)
Amplitude is the amount of vibration
86
Measured in units of Acceleration, Velocity,

or Displacement
Signal Detection is Peak to Peak, Peak, or
RMS
Frequency is the number of cycles per

second (Hertz) or cycles per minute
(CPM) that a part is vibrating
Phase is used to determine how one part
is vibrating relative to another part.
Overall Velocity Guidelines

87
Overall Alarm Chart
MACHINE TYPE
Cooling Tower Drives
GOOD
FAIR
ALARM
0 - .375
0 - .275
0 - .200
.375 - .600
.275 - .425
.200 - .300
.600
.425
.300
0 - .325
0 - .275
0 - .200
0 - .200
0 - .150
.325 - .500
.275 - .425
.200 - .300
.200 - .300
.150 - .250
.500
.425
.300
.300
.250
Lobe-Type Rotary
0 - .300
Belt-Driven Blowers
0 - .275
General Direct Drive Fans (with Coupling)
0 - .250
Primary Air Fans
0 - .250
Large Forced Draft Fans
0 - .200
Large Induced Draft Fans
0 - .175
Shaft-Mounted Integral Fan (Extended Motor Shaft) 0 - .175
Vane-Axial Fans
0 - .150
.300 - .450
.275 - .425
.250 - .375
.250 - .375
.200 - .300
.175 - .275
.175 - .275
.150 - .250
.450
.425
.375
.375
.300
.275
.275
.250
0 - .275
0 - .200
.275 - .425
.200 - .300
.425
.300
0 - .250
0 - .200
0 - .150
.250 - .400
.200 - .300
.150 - .225
.400
.300
.225
0 - .175
0 - .150
.175 - .275
.150 - .225
.275
.225
Vertical Pumps (12' - 20' Height)

0 - .375
0 - .325
0 - .250
0 - .200
General Purpose Horizontal Pump (Direct Coupled) 0 - .200
Boiler Feed Pumps
0 - .200
Hydraulic Pumps
0 - .125
.375 - .600
.325 - .500
.250 - .400
.200 - .300
.200 - .300
.200 - .300
.125 - .200
.600
.500
.400
.300
.300
.300
.200
.100 - .175
.150 - .225
.100 - .175
.075 - .125
.050 - .075
.175
.225
.175
.125
.075
Long Hollow Drive Shaft

Close Coupled Belt Drive
Close Coupled Direct Drive
Compressors
Reciprocating
Rotary Screw
Centrifugal with or without External Gearbox
Centrifugal - Integral Gear (Axial Meas.)
Centrifugal - Integral Gear (Radial Meas.)
Blowers (Fans)
Motor/Generator Sets
Belt-Driven
Direct Coupled
Chillers
Reciprocating
Centrifugal (Open-Air) - Motor & Comp. Separate
Centrifugal (Hermetic) - Motor & Impellers Inside
Large Turbine/Generator
3600 RPM Turbine/Generators
1800 RPM Turbine/Generators
Centrifugal Pumps
Machine Tools
88
Motor
Gearbox Input
Gearbox Output
Spindles:
a. Roughing Operations
b. Machine Finishing
0 - .100
0 - .150
0 - .100
0 - .075
0 - .050
89
Frequency Analysis
Measuring Vibration Amplitude
90
The three vibration characteristics,

displacement, velocity, and acceleration are
inter-related.
When displacement and frequency values are
known, velocity (peak) can be calculated.
To Calculate Velocity (peak):
V = 52.3 x D x F x 106
Where:
V = velocity (peak) in inches/second
D = displacement (peak-to-peak) in mils
F = frequency in CPM
Calculate Acceleration
91
When displacement and frequency are

known, acceleration (peak) can be
determined by using the following
calculation:
To Calculate Acceleration (peak):
g (peak) = 14.2 x D (F/I 000)2 x i0
Where:
g = acceleration (peak) due to gravity
D = displacement (peak-to-peak) in mils
F = frequency in CPM
Time Waveforms
92
Unbalance
Looseness
Output
Shaft
Time
Gearmesh
Conversion to Frequency
Domain
Amplitude
Complex Waveform
F.F.T.
T
Time
Amplitude
Freq
Frequency
Simple Frequency
f Spectrum
93
Time
Time and Frequency

Domain
Simple Waveform
94
Complex Waveform
FMAX
Amplitude
9X
5X
3X
1X
Time Domain
Frequency Domain
TMAX
Spectrum Analysis!!!
95
Amplitude
a
I
lm
a
b
n
c
e
rB e
D
p
C
ie c
Frequency
e
lo
n
a tf
iu
g
n
g
Frequency
rG
m
e
e
a
s
h
Real Vibration is Complex

96
Resulting Spectrum (FFT)

97
98
Fixed Frequency
vs.
Order Normalization
Fixed Frequency Spectrum

Vibration Amplitude
Speed = 500 RPM
1000
2000
3000
Frequency (CPM)
99
4000
5000
Fixed Frequency Spectrum

Vibration Amplitude
Speed = 1500 RPM
1000
2000
3000
Frequency (CPM)
100
4000
5000
Order Normalized Spectrum

Vibration Amplitude
Speed = 500 RPM
Frequency (Orders)
101
9 10

Vibration Amplitude
Speed = 1500 RPM
Frequency (Orders)
102
9 10
103
Spectrum Alarm Bands

Alarm Bands
Vibration Amplitude
Speed = 1800 RPM

Band 1 Unbalance
Band 2 Looseness
Band 3 Bearings
Band 4 Blade Pass
Frequency (Orders)
104
9 10

Alarm Bands
Vibration Amplitude
Speed = 1800 RPM

Band 1 Unbalance
Band 2 Looseness
Band 3 Bearings
Band 4 Blade Pass
Warning
Danger
Blade Pass
0
Frequency (Orders)
105
9 10
Trending Band Amplitudes

Band 1 Unbalance
Band 2 Looseness
Band 3 Bearings
Band 4 Blade Pass
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
Time (Days)
106
A Pump Example
107
How many vanes does this

one have?
Vane Pass
vanes
108
volute
1x
The pressure output to the

volute will vary as the vanes
pass depending on how
exactly the vanes line up with
the outlet (volute) at any
given moment.
So with any centrifugal pump
there will be a pulsation
(pressure pulse) that occurs
at a frequency equal to the
number of vanes times the
speed of the pump.
5x
Hz
This is called the Vane Pass

frequency. It is always equal to the
number of vanes times the speed of
the pump.
In this case
800
Vane Pass = 5x
A Coupling / Alignment
Example
109
There will be a coupling

joining every component
on a machine
coupling
This is called angular

misalignment (you dont
really need to know that though)
Two Maximum Forces per

Revolution
Imagine that you are this

bolt
When you were here, you
110
would feel a maximum

compressive force
And you would

feel a maximum
expansion force
here
You would
feel no force
when you
were here
Force is applied in two

directions
111
If you drew a plot of the

force relative to expansion
or compression, vs. time
over one revolution you
would see
1 Rev.
compression
expansion
Two Maximum Forces per

Revolution
112
If you drew the same plot of

force (any kind) vs. time you
would see
1 Rev.
max.
min.
max compression
max
expansion
1x
2x
0
A maximum force is
observed twice per
revolution, so
Hz
800
How Would You Orient The

Sensor?
If you were going to attach a sensor to

detect this problem, in what direction
(relative to the shaft) would you place it?
113
1x
This type of misalignment would
be felt mostly in the axial direction,
but also somewhat in the radial
direction.
2x
0
Hz
800
Gears
Input =1000 RPM

Output =2000 RPM
Gear mesh=54000 CPM
Drive 54T
Driven 27T
Vibration Amplitude
1x
2x
114
20
54x
40
60
80
Frequency (Orders)
100
Rolling Element Bearings
115
Estimation Equations
Defect on Outer Race
~.5xN 1.2
Defect on Inner Race
~.5xN + 1.2
Ball Spin Frequency
~.2xN-1.2/N
Train Frequency ~.5xN-1.2/N
N=8 (Balls)
Estimation Equations
Defect on Outer Race .5x8 1.2 = 2.8
Defect on Inner Race .5xN + 1.2 = 5.2
Ball Spin Frequency .2xN-1.2/N = 1.45
Train Frequency .5-1.2/N = .35
Vibration Amplitude
FTF
1X
BSOR
BSF
BSIR
Frequency (Orders)
10
Summary
116
Review Objectives
Question and Answer Session
Performance
Monitoring
Objectives
118
Define monitoring methods

Measuring electrical performance
Measuring fluid performance
Monitoring Methods
119
Measuring Electrical Performance

Measuring Fluid Performance
Measuring Temperature
Measuring RPM
Establishing Standards
120
1. Standards which represent absolute

values.
2. Qualitative type of comparative criteria
such as manufacturers design limits.
Judging Performance
121
What seems to be out of its limit or has

changed?
By how much have the limits changed?
Are the changes occurring slowly or
rapidly?
Are there any other changes which
either confirm or contradict the initial
observations?
Measuring Electrical Performance
122
First follow proper safety rules

Common Electrical instruments
Voltmeters
Ammeters
Ohmmeters
Megohmmeters
wattmeters
Basic Instruments- Multimeters

Combines reading of:
123
Voltages
Resistance
Current
Analog Multimeter
Digital Multimeter
Ohms Law
E
R
124
The amount of current flowing in an

electrical circuit (I - Measured in
amperage) is dependent upon the value of
electrical pressure (E - measured in volts)
and the amount of opposition to the flow of
current (R - measured in ohms).
E
I
R
Measuring Voltage
125
+
A
Battery
A
OFF
COM
Voltage Drop Contd

Conductor
Resistance
V
OFF
Battery
A
V
OFF
126
COM
COM
Measuring Current
Break circuit to connect

meter. Note: meter leads
are moved to different
inputs for current testing.
V
OFF
COM
+
Battery
-
127
Measuring Current Contd

128
Never
clamp
two
wires at
once!
Measuring Resistance
129
Verify zero
setting of meter
Reading
Resistance
V
OFF
OFF
A
A
COM
COM
Megohmeter
130
Measuring Power
131
A
Ammeter
Voltage
LOAD
Current
SOURCE
Typical single phase wattmeter connection.
Measuring Power Contd

132
A
V
Measuring Power
THREE PHASE LOAD
THREE PHASE SOURCE
Typical single phase wattmeter connection
Protective Devices
133
Fuses
Circuit Breakers
Fuse Function
Fuse melts and opens
Load
Fuse
Source
Normal current
Short
BLADE
BODY
ELEMENT
134
High current
FILLER
Circuit Breaker Operation

Pivot point
135
Bimetallic strip
Spring
Breaker
Made
Current flow
Breaker
Tripped
Hold lever
Contacts
closed
Contacts
open
Measuring Fluid Performance
136
Pascals Law simply stated

says: Pressure applied on a
confined fluid is transmitted
undiminished in all
directions, and acts with
equal force on equal areas,
and at right angles to the
surface.
Pressure
exerted by fluid
equal in all
directions
Pressure and Force

The force contained by an air

cylinder barrel is the
projected area multiplied by
the pressure
Force = Pressure X Area

Area = Pi X Diameter
4
2
D
Where
=
D = the cylinder bore in inches
P = the pressure in pounds per square inch (psi)
Note = area of rod must be subtracted from total area
if calculating area of pressure at rod end.
Boyles Law
if the temperature of a confined body of gas

is maintained constant, the absolute pressure
is inversely proportional to the volume.
F1
F2
F3
V1
P1
V2
P2
V3
P3
P1 X V2 = P2 X V3 = P3 X V3 = constant where P = pressure and V= volume
138
Bernoullis Principle
139
in a system with a constant flow rate, energy is

transformed from one form to the other each time the
pipe cross-section size changes
Ignoring friction losses, the

pressure again becomes the
same as at A when the flow
velocity becomes the same as
at A.
In the small section pipe, velocity is

maximum. More energy is in the form
of motion, so pressure is lower.
PUMP
A
PSI
C
PSI
Velocity decreases in the larger

pipe. The kinetic energy loss is
made up by an increase in
pressure.
PSI
Pressure Measurement
Bourdon Style Gage
140
Tube tends to
straighten under
pressure causing
pointer to rotate.
Bourdon
tube
Pressure Inlet
Flow Measurement
141
By determining the rate of flow to what

the recommended flow rate is supposed
to be is essential for determining
pumping capabilities and efficiencies.
Flow Measurement Contd

142
Types of flow measurement devices are the

list following are but a few of the most
common types
Elbow tap switches

Flow switches
Turbine Flow meters
Rotameter Flow meters
Orfice Flow meters
Venturi tube flow measurement
Doppler Flow meters
Volumetric Flow meters
Elbow Taps
143
Elbow Taps: A flow measurement using elbow taps

depends on the detection of the differential pressure
developed by centrifugal force as the direction of fluid
flow is changed in a pipe elbow
Elbow tap
Elbow tap
Flow
Indicator
Flow switches
144
Flow switches are used to determine if

the flow rate is above or below a
certain value. One type of flow switch
is the swinging vane flow switch.
Switch
Swinging
vane
Turbine Flowmeter
Magnetic pickup
Flow
direction
Rotor
145
Doppler Flowmeters
146
Transmitting
element
Receiving
element
Flow
direction
Summary
147
Review Objectives
Thermographic
Analysis
Objectives
149
Define infrared
Types of equipment used
Define thermographic imaging
Implementing a maintenance program
List types of faults
Introduction
150
Thermography is a predictive
maintenance technique that can be used
to monitor the condition of plant
machinery, structures, and systems.
Involves the measurement or mapping
surface temperatures as heat flows to,
from and/or through an object
Infrared Basics
151
Objects with a temperature above absolute

zero emit energy or radiation
Infrared radiation is one form of this emitted
energy.
Three sources of energy
Emitted energy
Reflected energy
Transmitted energy
Only emitted energy is important in a

predictive maintenance program.
Energy Emissions
152
A = Absorbed energy.
R = Reflected energy.
T = Transmitted energy.
E = Emitted energy.
A
R
T
A+R+T=1
E=A
E+R+T=1
Blackbody Emissions
A perfect emitting body is called a

Blackbody
E = A = .7
153
R = .3
T=0
Graybody Emission
Bodies that are not blackbodies will emit

some amount of infrared energy.
A
E=A=1
154
R=0
T=0
Infrared Thermometers
155
249
Line Scanners
156
This type of infrared instrument provides

a single-dimensional scan or line of
comparative radiation.
Infrared Imaging
157
Infrared Theory
158
Implementing a Maintenance
Program
159
Gain support from management .

Practice reading thermographic images
Meet regularly with managers, line supervisors
and other co-workers
Integrate with other predictive maintenance
efforts
Establish written inspection procedures
Create inspection routes
Reporting results
Example Inspection Process

160
Overheating Belt/Sheave
161
Overheating Belt Drive

162
Thermal image reveals overheating

bearing on a primary motor
163
164
This panel circuit breaker is hot! Is it a problem?

Without a load reading, diagnosis is difficult. This
may be the only energized breaker in the entire
panel!
Roller, chain and belt

conveyors
165
Thermal imaging is especially useful

for monitoring low-speed mechanical
equipment like conveyors.
These hot spots most likely indicate poor bearing lubrication or component
wear problems.
Inspect Bearings
166
When a motor bearing fails, the motor heats up and

lubrication begins to break down. The windings
overheat and then the temperature sensor cuts out
and stops the motor. Worst case, the shaft binds up,
the rotor locks up and the motor fails completely
overheating shaft and bearing may be an indicator of

bearing failure, lack of proper lubrication, or
misalignment.
Printed Circuit Boards

167
Thermal imagers capture two-dimensional

representations of the surface temperatures of
electronics, electrical components and other objects.
Since overheating may signal that a trace, a solder
joint, or a component (chip, capacitor, resistor, etc.) is
malfunctioning,
Building Inspection
168
Thermal imaging or
thermography can
capture two-dimensional
representations of the
surface temperatures of
parts of buildings,
including roofs, walls,
doors, windows and
construction joints.
Petroleum and petrochemical

processing
169
This nitrogen pump had a persistently leaky seal and had to be

changed out regularly. Thermal imaging revealed a restriction
preventing the seal from receiving enough cool airflow. As a
result, the seal was overheating and melting.
Substations and Switchgear
170
Since overheating as well as abnormally cool

operating temperatures may signal the degradation
of an electrical component, thermal imagers provide
the predictive capabilities required for substation
and switchgear maintenance.
For equipment that always has a high operating

temperature, establish a baseline or standard
acceptable temperature range to compare readings to.
Monitoring transformers
171
Most transformers are cooled by either oil or

air while operating at temperatures much
higher than ambient
At 94 F, one of the terminals on this 1320V

480 V main transformer is running about 20 F
hotter than it should.
Industrial gearboxes
172
The gearbox on this conveyor belt motor assembly

is abnormally warm. The clue is the white-hot shaft
at the center.
Reports
173
When an image reveals

a situation that may
require repairs, a report
should be created
describing what the
image shows and
possibly suggesting a
remedy. The report can
then be circulated to
personnel responsible
for equipment reliability,
who can investigate the
problem further.
Wind Flow
174
Wind will affect your temperature readings due to

convection cooling. This can be compensated in
outdoor predictive maintenance applications by
multiplying your temp. reading by the correction factors
listed below.
Wind Speed (Miles Per Hour)
Correction Factor
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
1.00
1.30
1.60
1.68
1.96
2.10
2.25
2.42
2.60
Summary
175
Review Objectives
Lubrication
Course Objectives
177
Define types of lubrication

Distinguish the difference between
grease and oil
Discuss the hazards of mixing different
lubrications
Describe the proper handling of
lubrication
Introduction to Lubrication
Why use lubricants?
178
Reduce Friction
Increase Cooling
Lubrication Functions
179
Form a lubricant film between

components.
Reduce the effect of friction
Protect against corrosion
Seal against contaminants
Cool moving parts
Lubrication
180
Friction
181
Grease and oil lubricate the moving parts

of a machine
Grease and oil reduce friction, heat, and
wear of moving machine parts
Oil = Low Friction and Heat

182
No Oil = High Friction and Heat

183
Bearing
center
184
Shaft
center
Loaded
area
Oil delivery
Lubrication Prevents Failure of:

185
Bearings
Gears
Couplings
Chains
Lubrication Prevents Failure of:

186
Engine components
Hydraulic pumps
Gas and Steam Turbines
Any moving parts
Lubricants prevent failure by:

187
Inhibiting rust and corrosion

Absorbing contaminates
Displacing moisture
Flushing away particles
Lubricant Selection
188
Operating temperature
Load
Speed
Environment
Grease Lubrication
Oil Lubrication
Grease
189
Grease is a heavy, non-liquid

lubricant
Grease can have a mineral, lithium
or soap base
Grease is pasty, thick and sticky
Grease
190
Some greases remain a paste from

below 0C to above 200C.
The flashpoint of most greases is
above 200C
Grease does not become a mist under
pressure
Oil
191
Oil can be a heavy or thin liquid

lubricant
Oil can have a natural base
(mineral)
Oil can have a synthetic base
(engineered)
Oil
192
Oil remains liquid from below 0C to

above 200C.
The flashpoint of many oils is above
200C
The flashpoint is very low for
pressurized oil mist. Why?
How are grease and oil different?

How oil is used:
193
Oil used in closed systems with pumps.

An oil sump on a diesel engine pumps
liquid oil.
Oil is used in gas and steam turbines
Oil is used in most machines that need
liquid lubricant
How grease is used?

194
In areas where a continuous supply of oil

cannot be retained, (open bearings, gears
chains, hinged joints)
Factors to be considered when selecting
greases are:
Type. Depends on operating
temperatures, water resistance, oxidation
stability etc
Characteristics. Viscosity and
consistency
Grease or Oil?
195
What determines whether a machine

needs grease or oil?
The manufacturer specifies what
lubricant is used in their machines,
based on the properties of the lubricant.
One important property is VISCOSITY.
Viscosity
196
Liquid oil has lower viscosity than grease

paste
Grease paste has higher viscosity than
liquid oil
What is Viscosity?
197
Viscosity
198
Viscosity is a liquids resistance to flow

Viscosity affects the thickness of a liquid
High viscosity liquids are hard to pour
Low viscosity liquids are easy to pour
Viscosity Rules of Thumb

199
the lower the temperature, the lighter the

oil
the higher the temperature, the heavier the
oil
the heavier the load, the heavier the oil
the lighter the load, the lighter the oil
the faster the speed, the lighter the oil
the slower the speed, the heavier the oil
Viscosity
200
Low
Viscosity
High
Viscosity
Viscosity
201
Temperature affects viscosity.

Heat decreases viscosity
Cold increases viscosity
Viscosity is measured in centistokes
(cSt)
Consistency
202
Fundamental principle
Thickener
Operating temperature
Mechanical conditions
Low temperature effect
High temperature effect
Additives
203
Antifoaming
Demulsibility prevention of emulsions.
Detergents
Grease Lubrication
204
How grease works

Thickening agent
Properties
Where used
Advantages of Grease Lubrication
205
Reduction of dripping and splattering

Hard to get points
Reduction of frequency of lubrication
Helps seal out contaminants and
corrosives.
Ability to cling to part
Used to suspend other solids
Grease Selection Factors

206
Load condition
Speed range
Operating conditions
Temperature conditions
Sealing efficiency
External environment
Oil Types
207
Two types of lubrication oil are:

Mineral-based
Synthetic
Mineral-Based Oil
208
Mineral-based oil is refined from crude

oil hydrocarbons
Mineral-based oil has 2 types of base:
Naphtha Base
A naphtha base is solvent-like
Paraffin Base
A paraffin base is waxy
Mineral-Based Oil
Naphtha Base
209
Lower viscosity index (40-80 cs)

Lower pour point
Less resistant to oxidation and changes
in viscosity index
Good performance at higher
temperatures
Mineral-Based Oil
Paraffinic Base
210
Higher viscosity index (>95cs)

Higher pour point
Very resistant to changes in viscosity
index and oxidation
Thicken at low temperatures
Mineral-Based Oil
211
Mineral-based oils are cheaper to buy

than synthetics.
Mineral-based oils can contain traces
of sulfur and nitrogen. These
impurities can cause oil to form sludge.
Synthetic Oil
212
Synthetic oil is NOT refined from crude

oil hydrocarbons
Synthetic oil is made without a mineral
base
Synthetic oil is made by careful control
of a chemical reaction that yields a
pure substance
Synthetic Oil
213
Synthetic oils are chemically

engineered to be pure. They do not
contain the traces of sulfur or nitrogen
present in mineral-based oils.
Synthetic oils are expensive
Synthetic Oil
214
Synthetic oil is less flammable than

mineral-based oil at low pressure.
(Pressure causes most oils to become
more flammable)
Synthetic oils are generally more
expensive than mineral based oils
Lubricant Specifications
215
ISO = International Standards

Organization
SAE = Society of Automotive
Engineers
ISO Lubricant Specifications

216
ISO Grade lubricants are for industrial

use. ISO specifications exist for
lubricants in extreme industrial
environments.
ISO Lubricants
ISO GRADE
217
Viscosity
40C
100C
32
46
68
100
30.4
5.2
43.7
6.6
64.6
8.5
30.4
5.2
222(432)
224(435)
245(473)
262(504)
-36(-33)
-36(-33)
-33(-27)
-30(-22)
Flash Point
C(F)
Pour Point
C(F)
Using Different Lubricants

218
Why do we use different lubricants?

What happens if oils are mixed?
Mixing Lubricants
219
Consequences of mixing different

lubricants are:
Change of viscosity
Stripping of machines internal
coatings, damage to seals
Reduced flash point, risk of fire
Mixing Lubricants
220
Loss of corrosion protection

Poor water separation
Foaming
Thermal instability
Fundamentals of Lubrication
Equipment lubrication
221
Bearings
Gears
Couplings
Chains
Lubricant Delivery Methods

222
Force Feed Lubricant

Oil Mist
Constant Circulation
Oil Slinger
Zerk Fittings
Surface Application (brush or spray)
Force Feed Lubrication

223
A force feed lubricant system is like an

automated version of the hand held oil
can. An automatic plunger applies
pressure to deliver a few drops at
predetermined time intervals.
Oil Applicators
224
Grease Lubrication
225
Lubrication Check Example
226
Hand
grease
square slide
shaft and
worm shaft
(Monthly)
1 to 2
pumps per
shaft of
(Mobil
XHP222)
Grease
support
wheel
bearings
(Quarterly)
1 to 2
pumps with
(Mobil
XHP222)
Grease Variable Pitch Pulley

(Quarterly) 1 to 2 Pumps of
(Mobil XHP222)
Hand Oil Roller Chain,

[behind guard] (Quarterly)
(LPS) (24810)
Check
Windup
Gear Boxes
(Quarterly)
Oil type
ISO360
(Mobil Gear
636)
Zerk Fittings
227
Zerk Fittings are grease fill points

that have an internal check valve that
prevents contaminates from entering
the fitting. Always clean the Zerk
fitting before applying grease.
Lubrication Practices
228
Using grease gun

Oil samples
Removing contamination
Leaks
Follow lubrication instructions
Summary
229
Review Objectives
Tribology
(Oil Analysis)
Course Objectives
231
Define Tribology
Oil Analysis Tests
Discuss the hazards of mixing different
lubrications
Describe the proper handling of
lubrication
Introduction to Tribology
232
Tribology is the general term that refers

to oil analysis, spectrographic analysis,
ferrography, and wear particle analysis.
Lubricating Oil Analysis Tests
233
Viscosity
Contamination
Fuel Dilution
Solids Content
Fuel Soot
Oxidation
Nitration
Total Acid Number (TAN)
Total Base Number (TBN)
Particle Count
Spectrographic Analysis
TAN
234
Measures of the acid concentration of the oil

As oil ages and oxidizes small amounts of
acid are formed
Indication of the amount of degradation of oil
TAN above 4.0 is highly corrosive, attacking
bearings and other metals
TBN
235
Measures of the alkalinity the oil

Engine oil has additives to neutralize
acids generated during combustion
Indication of the amount of degradation
of oil
Once depleted the oil can become
highly corrosive, attacking bearings and
other metals
Wear Particle Analysis

236
Provides information about the wearing

condition of the machine.
Particles in lubricant are studied for
Shape
Composition
Size
Quantity
Types of Wear
237
Five basic types of wear can be identified

according to the classification of particle
Rubbing wear
Cutting wear particles
Rolling fatigue
Combined Rolling and Sliding wear
Severe Sliding Wear
Ferrography
238
Similar to spectrography except a

magnetic field is used to separate
particles.
Particles larger than 10 microns can be
separated.
Analytical Ferrography utilizes
microscopic analysis to identify the
composition of material present.
Example Slide
Magnetic Flux Lines
239
Non-Magnetic Particles
Wetting Barrier
Strong Magnet
Ferrogram photos
Photographs of ferrograms showing

severe sliding wear during break-in
240
241
Ferrograms of fine rubbing wear and

the occasional larger particle
Spectroscopy
242
Uses an IR radiation source

Radiation is passed through the sample
to a detector.
Example FTIR Spectroscopy

Glycol
Sulfation
Antioxidant
Water
Oxidation
Fuel
Soot
3900
243
AW
Nitration
3500
3100
2700
2300
1900
Wavenumber
1500
1100
700
Typical Results of Testing

244

245

246
Analysis Progams
247
Lubricant analysis programs are tests used to

determine whether a lubricant remains
effective.
A lubricant analysis program may allow longer
intervals between changing lubricants.
In this program, samples of lubricant are
collected and either analyzed in the field
(using test equipment) or sent to an analytical
laboratory for analysis.
Representative sample collection is critical to
ensure that the sample being analyzed is
indicative of the lubricant's overall condition.
Benefits
248
Reduces the frequency of oil changes.

Decreases consumption and purchase of
virgin oil.
Reduces the generation of waste oil.
Provides valuable diagnostic information.
Disadvantages
249
Higher level of knowledge is required to

perform the diagnostic tests or take
representative samples.
Data must be collected over time and
analyzed to determine trends.
Results are subject to interpretation.
Oil analyzers must be calibrated to the
type and manufacturer of the oil being
used.
Equipment Audit
An equipment audit should be performed

to obtain:
250
knowledge of the equipment

its internal design
the system design
present operating
environmental conditions
Lubricant Audit
251
Equipment reliability requires a lubricant that

meets and maintains specific physical,
chemical, and cleanliness requirements.
A detailed trail of a lubricant is required,
beginning with the oil supplier and ending after
disposal of spent lubricants.
Sampling and testing of the lubricants are
important to validate the lubricant condition
throughout its life cycle.
Baseline Signature
252
The baseline signature should be designed to

gather and analyze all data required to
determine the current health of
the equipment
lubricant
The baseline signature or baseline reading

requires a minimum of three consecutive,
timely samples, preferably in a short duration
(i.e., one per month) to effectively evaluate the
present trend in the equipment condition.
Monitoring
253
These activities are performed to collect

and trend any early signs of deteriorating
lubricant and equipment condition
Routing Monitoring
Routes
Frequency of Monitoring
Tests
Analysis
254
Data Analysis
Root Cause Analysis
Reports
255
Specific equipment identification

Data of sample
Date of report
Present condition of equipment and
lubricant
Recommendations
Sample test result data
Analysts name
Summary
256
Review Objectives
Non-Destructive
Testing (NDT)
Objectives
258
Upon completion of this course

students will be able to:
Define the purpose of non-destructive
testing
Define visual inspection
Define liquid penetrant testing
Define magnetic particle testing
Purpose
To reduce the rate of machine failure by
259
Checking for defects that may cause a part

to fail
Verify a part is within specified tolerances
Conditions will allow machine to operate at
maximum efficiency
Types of Faults
260
Cracks
Erosion
Wear
Loss of coating
Reductions in thickness or wall size
Weld integrity
An assembled machine can also be checked

for:
Correct assembly
Loose parts
Damage
Blockages
Types
261
Visual
Liquid Penetrant
Magnetic Particle
Ultrasonic
Eddy Current
Radiography
Direct Visual Inspection

262
NDE (non-destructive examination)

Requirements
Adequate light
Good eyesight
Ability to get close to equipment
Experience/Knowledge
May need magnification instruments
Remote Visual Inspection

263
RVI allows the detection, observation or

analysis of defects inaccessible to the
eye.
The simplest tool is a swivel type mirror
Main tools are

Videolmagescope
Fiberscope
Borescope
Video Image Scope
The scope has a camera built into the

end of a flexible probe.
264
Articulation
Control
Light guide
cable
Interchangeable
tip adapters
Light guide
connector
CCU
connector
Fiberscope
265
Differs from video image scope, the

image is seen at the eyepiece
Image guide
Eyepiece
Light guide
Light
source
Focusing eyepiece
Fiber optic light guide
Objective lens
Object
Illumination area
Borescope
The borescope is another instrument for

remotely inspecting the inside of a
machine by optical means.
Direction indicator
Focus control
Field of
view
Eye cup
Cap
Light guide
window
Eyepiece
266
Liquid Penetrant
A common method of checking for

cracks due to:
267
Fatigue
Grinding
Welding
Casting
Shrinkage
Lack of bonding
Delamination
Etc.
Advantages
The advantages of liquid penetrant are:
268
Can be used on a wide variety of materials.

Simple to use and does not require
extensive training.
Does not require expensive and dedicated
equipment.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of liquid penetrant

are:
269
Does not detect sub-surface faults.

Does not indicate the width or depth of a
crack.
Cannot be used on porous materials or
materials that do not have a smooth
surface.
Five steps of Liquid Penetrant
1. Surface
preparation
2. Penetrant
application
4. Developing
270
3. Removal of the
excess penetrant
5. Inspection and
Interpretation
Magnetic Particle Inspection MPI

271
Magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is a

nondestructive testing method used for defect
detection.
MPI uses magnetic fields and small magnetic
particles (iron filings) to detect flaws in
components.
The only requirement is that the component
being inspected must be made of a
ferromagnetic material such as iron, nickel,
cobalt, or some of their alloys
Basic Principle
272
Any place that a magnetic line of force exits or enters

the magnet is called a pole. A pole where a magnetic
line of force exits the magnet is called a north pole
and a pole where a line of force enters the magnet is
called a south pole.
Magnetic particles
North pole
Magnetic field lines
South pole
Magnetic Flux and Leakage

Flux lines
A. Uniform Flux Lines
Leakage from
surface flaw
B. Distortion by a surface crack
Leakage from
Subsurface flaw
C. Distortion by Internal Flaw near the Surface
273
Advantages/Disadvantages
274
The advantages of the Magnetic Particle method

are:
sensitive to flaws of almost any size shape and
composition.
can detect flaws that are just below the surface.
The disadvantages of the Magnetic Particle

method are:
can only be applied to ferromagnetic material.
if the magnetic flux is parallel to the crack it will not
show, therefore perhaps requiring two or more tests.
Three Steps of MPI

275
Magnetization of the part
Application of the particles
Inspection and interpretation
Magnetization
Four methods
276
Coil around a piece

Current through a piece
Current through a portion
using prods
Electro-magnetic Yoke.
Application of Particles
277
The particles consist of a fine iron oxide

powder that are elongated to assist in
polarization and lubricated to enhance
their mobility.
Two types of particles
Dry (usually dyed)
Wet (usually treated with fluorescent
material)
MPI Inspection/Interpretation
Flaw detection depends on a number of

factors
278
Strength of magnetic field

Orientation of fault to flux lines
Depth of the flaw
Strength of current used
Location of prods, yoke or coil
Eddy Current Testing - ET

279
Used to inspect electrically conducting

specimens for defects, irregularities in
structure, and determining coating
thickness
Eddy Current Principle
Alternating current
280
Probe
Magnetic field
Eddy
Currents
or
secondary
magnetic
field
Fault
Advantages
281
Crack detection
Material thickness measurements
Coating thickness measurements
Conductivity measurements for:
Material identification
Heat damage detection
Case depth determination
Heat treatment monitoring
Disadvantages
282
Only conductive materials can be inspected

Surface must be accessible to the probe
Skill and training required is more extensive
than other techniques
Surface finish and roughness may interfere
Reference standards needed for setup
Depth of penetration is limited
Flaws such as delaminations that lie parallel to
the probe coil winding and probe scan
direction are undetectable
Radiography Testing - RT
283
Widely used processes to detect subsurface defects and faults

Permanent record is produced in the
form of an image created on a film that
was exposed to a source of radiant
energy
Example Radiography
Source
284
Radiation Beam
Weld
Slag
Film
Sources
285
There are two sources of penetrating

waves which are suitable for
radiography:
X-ray
Gamma Ray
Advantages of X-Rays
286
No residual radiation is generated or retained

when the power is switched off.
Penetrating power is adjustable through
varying the high voltage (kV) input.
Can be used on all materials (including
aluminum).
Provides radiographs with good contrast and
sensitivity.
Sufficient size machines exist to radiograph
through 20 inches (500 mm) of steel.
Disadvantages of X-Rays
287
High initial cost.

Requires source of electrical power.
Equipment not very portable, also
relatively fragile.
Tube head usually large in size,
unusable in tight locations.
Electrical hazard from high voltage.
Advantages of Gamma Rays
288
Small initial and low maintenance costs.

Rugged construction, more suited to
industrial locations.
No electric power required or concern of
electrical hazard.
High penetrating power.
Portable with access into small areas
with source tube.
Disadvantages of Gamma Rays
289
Radiation hazard and radiation emitted

continuously.
Penetrating power cannot be adjusted.
Radioisotope decays in strength requiring
recalibration and replacement.
Radiographic contrast generally less than Xray.
Cannot be used on all materials (eg.
aluminum).
Safety
290
Ionizing radiation can be very

damaging to the human body
depending on the concentration of the
exposure.
Illness produced from ionizing
radiation ranges from nausea,
vomiting, headache, and diarrhea to
loss of hair and teeth, reduction in red
and white blood cells, hemorrhaging,
sterility, and death
Viewing Radiographs
Generally viewed on a light-box.
291
Summary
292
Review Objectives
Ultrasonic
Measurement
Objectives
294
Define the basic principles of

ultrasonic detection
Define the advantages/disadvantages
Define types of waves
Ultrasonic Testing - UT
295
The application of high frequency sound

waves is used to detect internal flaws in
materials and also for thickness gauging.
When there is a discontinuity (such as a

crack) in the wave path, part of the
energy will be reflected back from the
flaw surface.
Sound Strategies
Ultrasonic Inspection Program
296
Versatile Predictive Maintenance

Technology
Results Right Out of the Box
Rising popularity
Condenser Leaks
Steam Traps
Leak Detection
Monitor Bearings
Acoustic Vibration
Sound and Ultrasound

297
Audible Sound (20

Hz 20,000 Hz)
Broad or Flat Response - Humans
Average peak human

range is 16 17
kHz
Human response is
very flat or broad
Ultrasound (20,000
Hz +)
Well beyond the
range of humans
Ultrasonic response
is very steep or
narrow
20 Hz 20,000 Hz
Narrow or Steep Response Ultrasound
20 KHz
40 KHz
60 KHz
Advantages
298
Sensitive to surface/subsurface discontinuities

Superior depth of penetration
Only single-sided access needed
Highly accurate
Minimal part preparation
Instantaneous results
Details can be produced on an automated
system
Can also be used for thickness measurement
Disadvantages
299
Surface must be accessible

Extensive training required
Requires a coupling medium
Rough, thin or irregular shapes are difficult to
inspect
Cast iron or course grained material difficult to
inspect
Linear defects parallel to beam go undetected
Reference standards are required.
Intensity and transit time

300
The pulse echo procedure is the most

common intensity and transit time
method
Pulse echo procedures
normal probe or straight beam
angle beam
surface wave
Pulse Echo Example
Start pulse
301
Ending pulse measured in time

CRT
Test Piece
Transducer
Sound energy
Test Piece
Flaw
Types of waves
Longitudinal waves
Transverse or shear waves
Surface waves
Transducer
Longitudinal
Waves
302
Shear
Waves
Ultrasonic Requirements
High frequency pulse generator

Transmitting/Receiving probe
(transducers)
Signal amplifier
CRT or oscilloscope
Coupling medium or couplant
Probe
Couplant
303
Test Methods
304
Resonant frequency method

Transit time method
Intensity method
Intensity and transit time method
Intensity and transit time method
305
Start pulse
Pulser/Receiver
Crack echo
Transducer
Back
surface
echo
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Fault
Angle Beam
Transducer
306
Traverse waves
Defect
Intensity Method
The intensity method requires separate

sending and receiving transceivers
Receiving
probe
Transmitting
probe
Receiver
High Frequency
Generators
With flaw
Receiver
307
Reference
level
Flaw
Disadvantages of Intensity Method
308
The test piece is required to have parallel

sides and access to both sides is required.
The probes must be positioned exactly
opposite one another.
Two probes double the chance of having
problems with the fluid coupling.
The location (depth) of the fault is not
indicated.
Piezoelectric Transducers
309
Conversion of electrical
pulses to mechanical
vibration and back is the
basis of ultrasonic testing.
Piezoelectric ceramic uses
the phenomenon, known
as electrostriction, to
perform this effect.
Characteristics
310
Example Condition Monitoring
311
Condition Monitoring
Rotating Equipment
Bearings
Gearbox
Pumps
Motors
Compressors
Summary
312
Review Objectives
Electrical Insulation
Testing
January 2008
Objectives
314
Define principle of insulation testing

Define currents to be tested
Define testing procedures
Reason for Testing

315
The most important reason for using an

insulation tester is to insure public and
personal safety.
It can eliminate the possibility of having a lifethreatening short circuit or short to ground.
This test is usually performed after the initial
installation of the equipment.
This process will protect the system against
miswired and defective equipment and protect
against fire or shock.
Principle of Insulation Testing
316
Insulation systems are capacitive

Sub currents
Conductive current
Capacitive Leakage current
Resistive current
Insulation Model
317
Insulation may be simply modeled as a

capacitor in parallel with a resistor.
Total current
AC
voltage
Ic
Capacitive
current
Ir
Resistive
current
DC Insulation Model
An extra capacitor is added to the AC

model of insulation.
318
DC
Ida
Dielectric
absorption
current
Current to be measured
Conductive
Leakage
Current
Conductors
319
Capacitive
Charging
Leakage Current
Dielectric
Insulation
Graphical Current Components
320
Insulation
Resistance
(in megohms)
Total current
Capacitive
Charging
Leakage current
Polarization
absorption
leakage current
Conductive
Current
(microamps) Leakage current
Time (seconds)
Megger Testing
321
Proof Testing & Procedure

322
Metal
conduit
Insulation
Predictive Maintenance Tests
323
Spot-reading/short-time resistance
test
Step voltage test
Dielectric-absorption/time-resistance
test
Testing Generators/Motors
324
When testing
generators, motors,
or transformers each
winding/phase
should be tested in
sequence and
separately while all
the other windings
are grounded. In this
way, the insulation
between phases is
also tested.
Summary
325
Review Objectives
Rotor Balancing
Objectives
327
Describe need for balancing

Define each type balancing method.
Determine if equipment is balanced
properly.
Rotor Balancing
328
Introduction
Imbalance = unbalance
Unbalance is one of the most common
causes of machinery vibration.
Balancing Machine
329
Sources of Vibration
Assembly errors
330
Center of rotation
Method of locating
Cocked rotor
Incorrect key lengths
Center of Rotation
Errors
331
Placement of shaft after balancing rotor

Balancing shaft tolerances
Shifting rotational center from center it was
balanced on
Best results balance on its own shaft

rather than balancing shaft
Method of Locating
End clamped rotors out of position after

balancing
332
Unbalanced if shaft not marked for point of

bore and shaft contact
May result in more serious vibration
Correction requires following precise

procedures for disassembly/reassembly
Cocked Rotor
For set screw mountings
333
If a rotor is cocked in a position different

from original imbalance can result
Can be caused by reversing order of set
screw tightening during balancing vs.
mounting
Prevention requires:
Tighten set screw gradually
Clean mating surfaces
Clean bolt holes
Key Length
334
Introduces machine vibration if key

length different from on used in
operation.
Male/Female.
One half of weight is shafts male portion
One half of weight is coupled female portion
Prevention always use actual

(recorded) key length.
Unbalance Example
335
Revolution
Later
Rotor
Heavy
spot
Centrifugal
Force Pulling
This Way
Centrifugal
Force Pulling
This Way
Unbalance Force
336
RPM
F 1.77 R W
1000
F = The force generated in pounds
R = Radius of the out of balance weight in
inches
W = Weight of the out of balance in
ounces
For calculating trial weight the formula is :

W
F
2
1.77 R RPM
1000
Theory of Imbalance
337
Static
Dynamic
Coupled
Dynamic combinations
Static
338
Single plane
Angular relationship
Force imbalance
Rotational Axis
Weight
Distribution
Axis
Heavy
Spot
Correcting Static Unbalance

339
Heavy
Spot
Heavy
Spot
Heavy
Spot
Balance
weight
BEST
Balance
weights
ACCEPTABLE AT
LOW RPMS
Balance
weights
NOT
ACCEPTABLE
Dynamic
Two Correction planes
340
Weight Distribution Axis
Rotational Axis
Couple
Intersects at rotational axis
341
Rotational Axis
Combination or Quasi-static
342
Rotational Axis
Natural Frequency
343
Displacement Displacement
Time
Struck
lightly
Time
Struck
heavily
Before Balancing
344
Machine in sound condition

Check for damage
Check rotor
Proper tuning of analyzer
Tools
345
Vibration analyzer
Weight scale
Calculator
Graph paper
Compass, ruler, straight edge
Trial weights
In Place Balancing
Corrected with rotor mounted in its

normal housing
346
Balancing Methods
Selecting Single Plane, Two Plane, Multi-Plane

L/D ration
excluding
shaft
L
D
L
D
L
D
Less than
0.5
Balance Correction
Single
plane
Two plane
Multi-plane
0-1000
RPM
Above 1000
RPM
Not
applicable
More than 0-150 RPM 150-2000

0.5 but
RPM or >
less than 2
70% of first
critical
Above
2000 RPM
or > 70% of
first critical
More than
2
Above 70%
of first
critical
0-100 RPM Above 100

RPM to 70%
of first critical
Note: RPM = machine operating speed

347
Summary
348
Review Objectives

Predictivemaintenance 140114170620 Phpapp02 - 2

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originalbeschreibung:

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Predictivemaintenance 140114170620 Phpapp02 - 2

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Fundamentals of Predictive Maintenance

Ejercicios de Qu Pasa Si? y de Diagnstico y Solucin de Problemas

The purpose of this course is to

Ejercicios de Qu Pasa Si? y de Diagnstico y Solucin de Problemas

Fundamentals of Predictive Maintenance

This course will present the following topics:

Define predictive maintenance programs

Fundamentals of Predictive Maintenance

Ejercicios de Qu Pasa Si? y de Diagnstico y Solucin de Problemas

Ejercicios de Qu Pasa Si? y de Diagnstico y Solucin de Problemas

Fundamentals of Predictive Maintenance

Lubrication and Tribology (Fluid

Fundamentals of Predictive Maintenance

Ejercicios de Qu Pasa Si? y de Diagnstico y Solucin de Problemas

Fundamentals of Predictive Maintenance

Define preventive maintenance.

Fundamentals of Predictive Maintenance

Ejercicios de Qu Pasa Si? y de Diagnstico y Solucin de Problemas

PM means Preventive Maintenance

How to View Maintenance

Ejercicios de Qu Pasa Si? y de Diagnstico y Solucin de Problemas

Fundamentals of Predictive Maintenance

Ejercicios de Qu Pasa Si? y de Diagnstico y Solucin de Problemas

PM (Preventive Maintenance) is a series

Fundamentals of Predictive Maintenance

Ejercicios de Qu Pasa Si? y de Diagnstico y Solucin de Problemas

PdM (Predictive Maintenance) is any

Ejercicios de Qu Pasa Si? y de Diagnstico y Solucin de Problemas

PM is the only way to determine when

Ejercicios de Qu Pasa Si? y de Diagnstico y Solucin de Problemas

Fundamentals of Predictive Maintenance

The task list is the heart of the PM

Ejercicios de Qu Pasa Si? y de Diagnstico y Solucin de Problemas

Fundamentals of Predictive Maintenance

2. Predictive Maintenance 8. Lubrication

10. Interview Operators

Ejercicios de Qu Pasa Si? y de Diagnstico y Solucin de Problemas

Fundamentals of Predictive Maintenance

Ejercicios de Qu Pasa Si? y de Diagnstico y Solucin de Problemas

Predictive Maintenance - PdM

Fundamentals of Predictive Maintenance

What do we mean by Predictive

to declare or indicate in advance

Ejercicios de Qu Pasa Si? y de Diagnstico y Solucin de Problemas

Any inspection (condition based) activity

Ejercicios de Qu Pasa Si? y de Diagnstico y Solucin de Problemas

Fundamentals of Predictive Maintenance

A Predictive Maintenance programs is the

This requires a program to:

Equipment Condition Monitoring

Fundamentals of Predictive Maintenance

Ejercicios de Qu Pasa Si? y de Diagnstico y Solucin de Problemas

Ejercicios de Qu Pasa Si? y de Diagnstico y Solucin de Problemas

Ejercicios de Qu Pasa Si? y de Diagnstico y Solucin de Problemas

Fundamentals of Predictive Maintenance

Ejercicios de Qu Pasa Si? y de Diagnstico y Solucin de Problemas

Ejercicios de Qu Pasa Si? y de Diagnstico y Solucin de Problemas

Fundamentals of Predictive Maintenance

Many vibration problems can be solved by

Talk to the operators and maintenance

Ejercicios de Qu Pasa Si? y de Diagnstico y Solucin de Problemas

Fundamentals of Predictive Maintenance