Water Flow in Saturated Soils Darcy's Law: CE/ENVE 320 - Vadose Zone Hydrology/Soil Physics Spring 2004

Hillel, pp.
173 - 177
Water Flow in Saturated Soils

Darcys Law
P1
P2
CE/ENVE 320 Vadose Zone Hydrology/Soil Physics

Spring 2004
Copyright Markus Tuller and Dani Or 2002-2004
Non Equilibrium and Flow

Flow occurs from locations with high potential energy to locations of
lower potential energy in pursuit of equilibrium state.
The driving force for flow is called potential (energy) gradient, the
difference in potentials between two points in a system separated by
a certain distance.
Potential Gradient i
1 2
L
L
i potential gradient
..
potential energy
L... distance between
the locations [L]
High potential energy
1= 1- 2
2
Low potential energy
Copyright Markus Tuller and Dani Or2002-2004
Hydraulic Potential
In general, gradients can develop due to differences in:
- Pressure
- Position in a gravity field
- Chemical concentration
- Temperature
- Position in an electrical field
leading to spontaneous flow of mass or energy.
We will focus on flow due to differences in hydraulic potential in this
section (neglecting solute potential).
h = z + m + p
Definition of Liquid Viscosity

Before we discuss flow in soils it is advantageous to introduce
some basic concepts related to flow in general.
Newtons Law of Viscosity
Early concepts in fluid dynamics are based on perfect fluids that
are assumed to be frictionless and incompressible. In a perfect fluid
contacting layers can exhibit no tangential forces (shearing
stresses) only normal forces (pressures).
Perfect fluids do not exist. In the flow of real fluids adjacent layers
do transmit tangential stresses (drag), and the existence of
intermolecular attraction causes fluid molecules in contact with
solid surfaces to adhere to it rather than to slip over it.
The flow of a real fluid is associated with the property of viscosity.
Liquid viscosity
The nature of viscosity can be visualized considering fluid motion
between two parallel plates; one at rest, the other one moving at
constant velocity.
Under laminar flow conditions water molecules are moving in
adjacent parallel layers. The layers transmit tangential stresses
(drag) due to attraction between fluid molecules.
Motion of fluid between parallel plates
The existence of intermolecular attraction causes fluid molecules

to adhere on the solid walls.
Newtons law of viscosity

The velocity distribution in the liquid is linear.
Maintaining the relative motion of the plates at constant velocity
requires the application of a constant tangential force to overcome
the frictional resistance in the fluid.
This resistance per unit area of the plate is proportional to the
velocity of the upper plate and inversely proportional to the distance
between the plates. The shearing stress at any point is proportional
to the velocity gradient.
The viscosity is the proportionality factor between and the
velocity gradient
Newtons Law of Viscosity
dv/dy
F
dv

A
dy
shearing stress (force F acting on an area A) [M L-1 t-2]

velocity gradient perpendicular to the stressed area (shear rate) [t-1]
viscosity coefficient of the liquid in [Pa s] [M L-1 t-1]
Viscosity is the property of the fluid to resist the rate of shearing

and can be visualized as an internal friction.
Fluid flow in cylindrical tubes

Fluid flows through a cylindrical tube having a diameter of 2R and length
L. We assume that the flow is laminar and caused by a pressure gradient
P=P2-P1.
Ff 2 y L
Pressure Force:
Fp P y 2
We equate the pressure

and frictional resistance
forces and solve for
Frictional Resistance Force:
2 y L P y
2
y P
2 L
Flow through cylindrical tubes

Now we can introduce Newton's law of viscosity.
dv
y P
dy
2 L
dv
P
y dy
2 L
The resulting ODE can be solved by integration.
P
dv
2 L
y dy
P y 2
v( y )
C
2 L 2
Since we know that the velocity at y=R is equal to zero we can solve for
the integration constant
P R 2
C 0
2 L 2
P R 2
C
L 4
Substituting the integration constant back into our previous result yields
the expression for the velocity profile as a function of distance from the
tube axis
P y 2 P R2
P 2
v( y )
R y2
2 L 2
L 4 4 L
Poiseuilles law for flow in cylindrical tubes

We know that the velocity is maximum at the center of the tube where
y=0, and can calculate vmax .
2
v max
P R
4 L
To calculate the Discharge Rate (volume of water flowing through the

tube per unit time) we have to integrate the velocity profile over the
cross-sectional tube area. This can be done very simple by calculating
the volume of a paraboloid of revolution.
V
R 2 P R 2
Q
t
2
4L
R 4 P
Q
8
L
This relationship is known as Poiseuilles law. It shows that the volume

of flow is proportional to the pressure trop per unit distance and to the
fourth power of the tube radius.
If we divide this expression by the tube cross section we receive the
average flow velocity as:
R 2 P
v
8 L
Example: laminar flow in tubes

What is the average (laminar) flow velocity of water at 20oC
through a 50m long tube having a diameter of d=0.1m under a
pressure difference of 100 Pa ?
Viscosity of water at 20 oC: = 0.001 Pa s
R 2 P
v
8 L
0.05 0.05 100
v
8 0.001 50
m 2 Pa
Pa s m
v 0.625 m s
Water Flow in Soils

Images of porous media pore space reveal that pores do not
resemble uniform and smooth circular tubes that form the basis for
Poiseuilles law.
P1
P2
Flow in porous media is generally described by macroscopic or

averaging terms that replace microscopic description of individual
flow pathways.
The first one able to quantitatively describe saturated flow through
porous media was HENRY DARCY a French engineer.
Flow of Water in Saturated Soil
(Darcys Law)
Historical Background
Henry Darcy, a French engineer, was commissioned by
the city of Dijon to find a solution for cleaning the city's
water supply that was contaminated by the waste of
mustard industry.
Darcy, in search of suitable filtering media, conducted
experiments with sand-packed filters.
(Darcys Law)
Historical Background
Henry Darcy, a French engineer, was commissioned by the city
of Dijon to find a solution for cleaning the city's water supply
that was contaminated by the waste of mustard industry.
Darcy, in search of suitable filtering media, conducted
experiments with sand-packed filters
The pioneering work of Darcy published in 1856, provided the
fundamental law for fluid flow in porous media.
Darcys Law
Jw
Q
V
h
Ks
A
At
z
Water flux density (flux) Jw

Volume of water flowing through a unit
cross section per unit time.
Saturated hydraulic conductivity Ks

Proportionality coefficient between water
flux density and hydraulic gradient.
JW
Q
V
A
Ks
h/z
water flux density [L/t]

discharge rate [L3/t]
volume of water [L3]
cross-sectional area [L2]
saturated hydraulic conductivity [L/t]
hydraulic gradient [L/L]
(Darcys Law)
Darcy, in search of suitable filtering

media, conducted experiments with
sand-packed filters
The pioneering work of Darcy published
in 1856, provided the fundamental law
for fluid flow in porous media.
Darcys Law
Jw
h
Q
V
Ks
A
At
z
Coordinates and conventions

For the application of Darcys law it is convenient to introduce a
sign convention for flux and heads when expressed in energy per
unit weight [L].
Upward flux is given a positive sign
The differences H and z, should be taken at the same order
(if taken H=H1-H2 then z=z1-z2)
The negative sign in Darcys law ensures the algebraic
consistency of the equation.
H1, z1
H2, z2
Potentials and Heads

Potential Energy of Soil Water
As previously mentioned the potential energy of soil water can be
expressed in terms of chemical potential (energy/mass), soil water
potential (energy/volume), or soil water head H (energy/ weight).
g acceleration of gravity
w density of water
gH
w
For many hydrological applications it is advantageous to express

potential as energy on weight basis (length).
This results in a simple notation for expressing heads as H=h+z
H the hydraulic head
h pressure (positive) or matric (negative) head
z gravitational head
Darcys Law - Vertical Flow

Example
A constant 20 mm of water is ponded on the
surface of a 50 mm long saturated vertical
sand column. What is the water flux from the
bottom of the column if the saturated
hydraulic conductivity is 50 mm/day?
Solution
(1) Define a convenient reference level
and designate it as z=0.
(2) Calculate the difference in hydraulic
head across the soil length
Hin hin z in 20 mm 50 mm 70 mm
Hout hout z out 0 mm 0 mm 0 mm
H Hin Hout 70 mm 0 mm 70 mm
Darcys results
Darcys Law - Vertical Flow

(3) Calculate the hydraulic gradient i:
i
H
70 mm
1. 4
z
50 mm
with units of hydraulic head it is a

dimensionless quantity
(4) Calculate the flux.

Jw K S i 50 1.4 70 mm / day
Flux is downward
Note the energy loss in the soil!

Darcys Law - Horizontal Flow

Example
The sand column from case a is now placed horizontally with 90 mm
of water ponded on the left side and 20 mm on the right side. Find:
(1) the water flux density, and (2) the volume of water collected at the
outlet during 12 hr if the cross-sectional area of the column was
1000 mm2.
Solution
(1) Set the reference
level z=0 to
coincide with the
axes of the
column
(2) Mark the column
inlet by x=0.
Sign convention

Solution Continued
(3) Calculate the difference in hydraulic head across the soil length
Hin hin zin 90 mm 0 mm 90 mm
Hout hout z out 20 mm 0 mm 20 mm
H Hin Hout 90 mm 20 mm 70 mm
(4) Calculate the hydraulic gradient i:
H 70 mm
1.4
z 50 mm
with units of hydraulic head it is a

dimensionless quantity
(5) Calculate the flux.

Jw K s i 50 1.4 70 mm / day 2.917 mm / hr

Solution Continued
(6) Calculate the cumulative volume of flow
Jw
V
At
V Jw A t
V 1000 12 2.917 35004 mm3
Saturated Flow - Potential Diagram

A constant water pressure of 20
kPa was maintained at the bottom
of a 0.5 m vertical saturated soil
column, and the water height at
the columns top was also kept
constant at 20 mm. Given the soils
saturated hydraulic conductivity
Ks = 5 mm/hr, find:
(1) The direction of flow; draw a

system sketch and a
potential diagram
(2) The water flux density Jw
2039 mm
20 mm
500 mm
(3) The height of ponded water

on top of the column that
causes a cessation of flow.

First we convert the pressure at the bottom of the column from
potential (kPa) to head (m):
20000
h
2.039 [m]
w g 1000 9.81
h
N
Pa m2 kg
2
kg m
kg
m s
2 2
m3 s2
m s
2039 mm
2 2
m s
[m]
kg
20 mm
500 mm
Then we assume the bottom of the column as reference level and

calculate the head at the top and the bottom as:
h TOP p TOP z TOP 20 500 520 [mm]
h BOT p BOT z BOT 2039 0 2039 [mm]


With known Ks we now calculate the flux density Jw as:
J w K s
h TOP h BOT
zTOP z BOT
520 2039
15.19 [mm hr ]
500 0
2039 mm
20 mm
Positive Jw means flow from bottom to top.
500 mm
The flow ceases when the hydraulic head at the top equals the
head at the bottom:
h TOP h BOT
p TOP 2039 500 1539 [mm]
2039 mm
20 mm
500 mm
520
500
z
[m
m]
z
520
2039
[mm]
Hillel, pp. 185-190 & 193-195
Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity and Flow

Through Layered Soils
CE/ENVE 320 Vadose Zone Hydrology/Soil Physics

Spring 2004
Copyright Markus Tuller and Dani Or 2002-2004
Measurement of Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity

Saturated hydraulic conductivity is an important medium property
used in many model calculations for flow and transport in soils.
Constant Head Method

A constant pressure head (50 mm) is
maintained on the top of a saturated
soil column of known cross-sectional
area (1000 mm2) and length (50 mm).
The outflow on the bottom is collected
over a certain period of time (5 hr) and
the outflow volume is determined
(25000 mm3).
With known and determined quantities
we can calculate the saturated
hydraulic conductivity.

First we rearrange Darcys law to receive an explicit expression for
saturated hydraulic conductivity Ksat:
H
Jw K s
z
z
K s Jw
H
We calculate the flux density from our measurements and the column
dimensions:
V
25000
Jw
5 mm hr
At
1000 5
Negative sign because of

downward flow
We apply Darcys law to calculate Ksat:
K s 5
50
2.5 mm hr
100
Note that the negative sign

of Darcys law ensures positive Ks
(There is no physical meaning to a
negative hydraulic conductivity)
Laboratory Setup

Falling Head Method
An alternative method for measurement of saturated hydraulic
conductivity does not require the maintenance of a of a constant
head nor any outflow measurement is called Falling Head Method.
Only initial and final depths of water
expressed as pressure head in length units
need to be recorded as a function of time.
The rate of decrease of depth of ponding is
equal to the flux density.
Jw
V
a dh
A t A dt
Darcys Law
J w K s

We can equate Darcys law with the expression for flux density
derived from the rate of decrease of ponding and integrate the
resulting expression to derive a relationship for Ksat:
h2
t2
K
K
a dh
1
s h(t) L a
dh s dt
A dt
L
hL
L
h1
t1 0
K
a h1 L
s t 2
ln
A h2 L
L
Ks
L a H1
ln
t2 A H2
Typical Values of Ks in Soils

Saturated hydraulic conductivity Ks
UNSODA Database
[cm/d]
NRCS Soil Survey Database

[cm/d]
Sand
506
713
Loamy sand
227
350
Sandy loam
42
106
Loam
39
25
Silt
56
Silt loam
31
11
Sandy clay loam
10
31
Clay loam
Silty clay loam
Silty Clay
0.5
Clay
26
Textural class
Limitations of Darcys Law

Reynolds Number
inertial forces
At high flow velocities inertial forces are no

longer negligible TURBULENT FLOW
viscous forces
dv
Re
d
v
effective pore diameter

mean flow velocity
liquid density
liquid viscosity
In very fine textured media (clays)

adsorptive surface forces affect flow. The
flux density at low gradients is smaller than
predicted according to Darcys law
Saturated Steady Flow Through Layered Soil

Under steady-state flow conditions the
flux through both layers is equal.
J w K s1
H H3
H1 H 2
K s 2 2
L1
L2
We solve for H2 and obtain two

equations:
L
H 2 H1 J w 1
K s1
H 2 J w
L2
H3
Ks2
Solving for flux density and introducing a effective saturated

hydraulic conductivity yields:
K seff
H 3 H1
H1 H 3
Jw
L1 L 2
L2
L
1
K s 2 K s1
Saturated Steady Flow Through Layered Soil

This solution can be generalized to a soil
profile having multiple layers.
The effective hydraulic conductivity for a
soil profile consisting of n layers, each
with distinct hydraulic conductivity Ks
and thickness L is obtained by setting
Jw=Ks-eff (Hn-H1)/Li
K s eff ( N )
Li
i 1
n
Li
K
si
i 1
This solution is valid for flow perpendicular to the layering (harmonic

mean).
For flow parallel to the layering we use an arithmetic mean weighed by
layer thickness
K s -e ff (N )
K s eff ( P )
Li K i
i 1
n
K s -e ff (P )
Li
i 1
Effective Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity - Example

A 1 m long glass tube having a radius of 1
mm was inserted into a 1 m long saturated
cylindrical soil column with a diameter of
100 mm, and Ks of 0.01 mm/min. The water
head at the top of the column and at the
tubes inlet was 0.25 m while the outlets
where at atmospheric pressure.
2 5
250
1 0 0
1000
(1) What would be the total flux through

the column tube system and what
percentage is contributed by the tube?
(2) What is the effective Ks of the columntube system

To apply Poiseuilles law for average flow velocity within the
tube we first have to convert hydraulic head h(m) to hydraulic
potential h (Pa) using the following relationship:
h w gh
2 5
250
h 1000 9.81 1.25 12263 [Pa]

Note that the hydraulic head is the sum of
water head and tube length.
1 0 0
1000
With known hydraulic potential we now can

solve Poiseuilles law:
r 2 P
v
8 L
0.0012 12263
v
1.5330 [m s] 91620 [mm min]

8 0.001
1

The tubes flux Qtube is simply the product of average velocity
and the tubes cross-sectional area:
Q tube 91620 12 287833 [mm3 min]

2 5
250
The flux of the soil column QC is given as:
Qc Jw A c
1 0 0
1000
Jw K s ( h z)
1250
Jw 0.01
0.0125 [mm min]
1000
QC 0.0125 (50 2 12 ) 98 [mm 3 min]

Then we calculate the total flux as the sum of column and tube flux:
Q T 287833 98 287931 [mm 3 min]

The contribution of the tube to the total flux is calculated as:
[%]
Q tube
287833
100
100 99.96 [%]
QT
287931
The systems (tube & column) flux density JT is simply the ratio of
the total flux QT and the total cross-sectional area AT. The
systems effective saturated conductivity is calculated as:
K S eff JT ( z h)

Total flux density
JT
287931
2
50
36.7 [mm min]
Effective saturated conductivity
K S eff 36.7
1000
29.3 [mm min]
1250

Water Flow in Saturated Soils Darcy's Law: CE/ENVE 320 - Vadose Zone Hydrology/Soil Physics Spring 2004

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Hillel, pp.

Water Flow in Saturated Soils

CE/ENVE 320 Vadose Zone Hydrology/Soil Physics

Copyright Markus Tuller and Dani Or 2002-2004

Non Equilibrium and Flow

High potential energy

Copyright Markus Tuller and Dani Or2002-2004

Copyright Markus Tuller and Dani Or2002-2004

Definition of Liquid Viscosity

Copyright Markus Tuller and Dani Or2002-2004

The existence of intermolecular attraction causes fluid molecules

Newtons law of viscosity

shearing stress (force F acting on an area A) [M L-1 t-2]

Viscosity is the property of the fluid to resist the rate of shearing

Fluid flow in cylindrical tubes

We equate the pressure

Frictional Resistance Force:

Copyright Markus Tuller and Dani Or2002-2004

Flow through cylindrical tubes

The resulting ODE can be solved by integration.

Copyright Markus Tuller and Dani Or2002-2004

Poiseuilles law for flow in cylindrical tubes

To calculate the Discharge Rate (volume of water flowing through the

This relationship is known as Poiseuilles law. It shows that the volume

Example: laminar flow in tubes

Water Flow in Soils

Flow in porous media is generally described by macroscopic or

Flow of Water in Saturated Soil

Copyright Markus Tuller and Dani Or2002-2004

Flow of Water in Saturated Soil

Water flux density (flux) Jw

Saturated hydraulic conductivity Ks

water flux density [L/t]

Copyright Markus Tuller and Dani Or2002-2004

Flow of Water in Saturated Soil

Darcy, in search of suitable filtering

Copyright Markus Tuller and Dani Or2002-2004

Coordinates and conventions

Copyright Markus Tuller and Dani Or2002-2004

Potentials and Heads

For many hydrological applications it is advantageous to express

Copyright Markus Tuller and Dani Or2002-2004

Darcys Law - Vertical Flow

Copyright Markus Tuller and Dani Or2002-2004

Darcys Law - Vertical Flow

with units of hydraulic head it is a

(4) Calculate the flux.

Note the energy loss in the soil!

Darcys Law - Horizontal Flow

Copyright Markus Tuller and Dani Or2002-2004

Darcys Law - Horizontal Flow

Hout hout z out 20 mm 0 mm 20 mm

(4) Calculate the hydraulic gradient i:

with units of hydraulic head it is a

(5) Calculate the flux.

Copyright Markus Tuller and Dani Or2002-2004

Darcys Law - Horizontal Flow

V 1000 12 2.917 35004 mm3

Copyright Markus Tuller and Dani Or2002-2004

Saturated Flow - Potential Diagram

(1) The direction of flow; draw a

(3) The height of ponded water

Saturated Flow - Potential Diagram