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Projection
0.08 M A
8X
7.9 - 8.1
0.14 M
0.06 A
9.6
9.4
A C M
M42 X 1.5 - 6g
0.1 M B M
8X 45
86
6.6
6.1
20.00 - 20.13
0.14
A C
Unit
44.60
44.45
9.6
9.4
25.5
25.4
31.8
31.6
0.1
36
34
Engineering Graphics
Principles
A
41.3
41.1
0.02
Glossary
57.6
56.6
100
99
Copyright 2002
Brigham Young University
All Rights Reserved
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Foreword
Orthographic projection (sometimes referred to as multi-view projection), is a geometric
procedure used in the engineering disciplines to project multiple graphic images of threedimensional objects, onto a single two-dimensional plane. The procedure is also called
engineering drawing or drafting, and is the primary means of communication used by
designers and engineers in the design process. Multiple views in an orthogonal orientation
(each rotated 90 from the other), is fundamental to the definition of feature and part
characteristicssuch as size, location, orientation, and functional relationships.
In its simplest form, orthographic projection provides a range of six orthographic-specific
views of an object. In your mind, imagine a physical stationary object that has been
suspended in the center of a glass cube. Each of the six sides of the box represents a
viewing or projection plane. The orientation of the observers line of sight must always be
perpendicular or normal to the planes on the glass box, and the sides of the box must also
be perpendicular to their adjacent sides. That being the case, the object could only be
viewed from the front, top, right side, left side, back, or bottom. With the images indelibly
fixed on the planes, and the box unfolded, the projected images or views would always be
oriented orthographically, and aligned with each other, from view to view on the drawing.
Glossary
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How to Proceed
In order to produce mechanical parts, detailed design information must be provided to the
craftsmaninformation that defines and describes relevant geometry and relationships of
descriptive elements on the part. Graphic images or views, developed from specific
orientations, are major elements in this communication process. A primary objective of this
unit is to acquaint you with the process of generating multiple (albeit, geometrically related)
views of mechanical components. The basic theory, rationale, and production techniques
are presented in a systematic order. It is anticipated that you will complete this unit in one
or possibly two sessions (more time and practice may be required if you are new to the
science of engineering graphics).
Begin with a thoughtful preview of the unit objectives, and carefully consider the related
vocabulary words and terminology. As each topic is considered, keep in mind an overall
objective of being able to read an engineering drawing, or to construct correctly projected
views that would be required to describe part features, thus facilitating the manufacturing
process.
Follow each explanation, and practice each technique as outlined for solving orthographic
projection problems. Review concepts that seem unclear, and do each of the exercises that
are providedespecially the self assessment exercises at the end of the presentation. As
you complete the exercises, carefully compare your own sketched solutions with the those
provided, and review the governing principles where necessary.
Glossary
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Unit Objectives
When you have completed this unit, you will be able to:
Explain the principles upon which orthographic projection is based.
Recognize and identify horizontal, frontal, and profile planes in engineering drawings, and explain
their relationships to standard planes of projection.
Identify the six principal views which may be generated, using the concept of the viewing cube, and
explain their specific orientation and relationships to each other.
Identify normal, inclined, and oblique planes relative to the six principal projection planes.
Read an engineering drawing, and explain the necessity for creating multiple views.
Use graphic tools such as reference planes and fold lines to solve orthographic projection problems.
Glossary
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Topics:
Terminology / Vocabulary
Orthographic Projection Theory (Third Angle Projection)
Glass Box Theory
Orientation of Object Features in Orthographic Projection
Directions and Orientation in Orthographic Projection
Orthographic Projection Principles Review
Orthographic Projection Theory (First Angle Projection)
Multi-view Projection Techniques
Miter Line (1)
To assist you in your study of the contents of
Miter Line (2)
Miter Line (3)
this presentation, a Table of Contents has
Miter Line (4)
been prepared. The topics listed are linked
Solid Example Problem
to the specific content by topic. When
Compass Projection Technique
selected with the mouse (in show mode), the
Projection Orientation -- View Selection
Pictorial Visualization
presentation materials will open at the
Measure and Transfer Method (1)
requested location. The navigation bar at the
Measure and Transfer Method (2)
bottom of the screen allows you to return to
Measure and Transfer Method (3)
Measure and Transfer Method (4)
this slide at any time. Similar tables have
Pictorial Visualization (Pyramid4a)
been included in all of the presentations that
Measure and Transfer Method (5)
follow.
An Alternative Solution (5a)
Inclined Surfaces in Orthographic Projection
Oblique Surfaces in Orthographic Projection
Additional Examples (Practice Problems in Orthographic Projection)
Concept Mastery Examination (Self Evaluation)
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OrthographicProjection
ProjectionTable
TableofofContents
Contents
Orthographic
Glossary
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Terminology / Vocabulary
Orthographic Projection
Station Pointany location in 3-dimensional space that is infinitely displaced from the
object being viewed.
Line of Sight (LOS)the orientation of an observer relative to a specific object.
Projection Plane (also called a Viewing Plane or Picture Plane)the plane onto which
the image of an object is projected.
Visual Raysan infinite number of parallel theoretical projectors which emanate from
an object, to form the image of the object on the projection plane.
Pierce Pointsintersections created by theoretical visual rays as they pass through or
collide with a projection plane.
Graphic Imagea symbolic representation of a 3-dimensional part or assembly of
parts, or a schematic layout or organization of entities, projected onto a 2dimensional plane.
Normal Viewsviews of features or part characteristics that are oriented perpendicular
to the observers line of sight.
Contiguous Viewsadjacent, orthographically projected views of an object.
Orthogonal Viewsprojected, orthographically aligned views of an object.
Glossary
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Terminology / Vocabulary
Orthographic Projection
Viewing CubeGlass Box concept; six projection planes configured as a cube.
Fold Linesthe representation of intersections between the sides of the viewing cube.
Reference Planesa base line for taking and applying measurements.
Principal Views also referred to as Primary Viewstypically the front, top, and right
side views.
Surface Viewsnon-normal views of feature surfaces that display 3-dimensional areas.
Edge Viewsall points on a planar surface aligned parallel to the line of sight.
Inclined Surfacesperpendicular to 2 of the 6 viewing planes; parallel to none.
Oblique Surfacesneither parallel nor perpendicular to any of the 6 viewing planes.
Line Weightsthere are three distinct line weights on engineering drawings; thin lines
approximately .007 - .010 wide, medium lines, approximately .015 - .020
wide, and thick lines approximately .030 - .040 wide.
Line Typesthere are many line types that are used on mechanical drawings, but there
are only six distinct line types that will be used in our discussions regarding
orthographic projection: construction, object, center, hidden, phantom, and
extension lines (also known as projection, or witness lines).
Glossary
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Glossary
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Glossary
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Viewing Station
at Infinity
Glossary
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Line of Sight
Viewing Station
at Infinity
Projection Plane
(Picture Plane
Viewing Plane)
Glossary
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Line of Sight
Viewing Station
at Infinity
Projection Plane
(Picture Plane
Viewing Plane)
Glossary
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Object
Line of Sight
Viewing Station
at Infinity
Projection Plane
(Picture Plane
Viewing Plane)
Glossary
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Object
Line of Sight
Viewing Station
at Infinity
Projection Plane
(Picture Plane
Viewing Plane)
Glossary
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Object
Line of Sight
Projection Plane
Glossary
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Glossary
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Glossary
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Glossary
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The glass box concept theorizes that an object is suspended inside a six-sided glass cube
(notice the use of hidden lines on the glass box, depicting lines that would not be visible
from the given perspective).
Glossary
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As the object is viewed from a specific orientation (perpendicular to one of the sides of the cube) visual
rays project from the object to the projection plane. These projectors are always parallel to each other.
Glossary
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The objects image is formed on the projection plane by the pierce points of the visual rays.
Glossary
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The process is repeated to construct the right side view on the profile plane
Glossary
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Glossary
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For many three-dimensional objects, two to three orthographic views are sufficient
to describe their geometry.
Glossary
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Glossary
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TOP
RIGHT SIDE
FRONT
Glossary
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TOP
RIGHT SIDE
FRONT
Glossary
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Glossary
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Glossary
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Glossary
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Glossary
Height = h
Width = w
Depth = d
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Height = h
Width = w
Depth = d
TOP
w
FRONT
RIGHT SIDE
Glossary
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Height = h
Width = w
Depth = d
FRONT
RIGHT SIDE
Glossary
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Glossary
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BACK
(Behind, or in
back of)
LEFT
(To the left of)
RIGHT
(To the right of)
FRONT
(Forward, or in
front of)
H
F
UP
LEFT
RIGHT
DOWN
(Above, or
on top of)
(Below, beneath,
or lower than)
(Above, or on
top of)
UP
FRONT
BACK
(Forward, or in
front of)
DOWN
Glossary
(Behind, or
in back of)
(Below, beneath
or lower than)
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REVIEW
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION PRINCIPLES
(Third-Angle Projection)
Glossary
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Review
Glossary
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FIRST-ANGLE PROJECTION
Glossary
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First-Angle Projection
The basic difference between third- and first-angle projection is that in first-angle
projection, the object is placed between the observer and the projection plane.
Line of Sight
Viewing Station
at Infinity
Projection Plane
(Picture Plane
Viewing Plane)
Glossary
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The image is always projected onto the projection plane, but in the case of firstangle projection, it is actually projected away from, instead of towards the
observer. The image would be projected directly behind the object in each case.
Object
Line of Sight
Viewing Station
at Infinity
Projection Plane
(Picture Plane
Viewing Plane)
Glossary
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The image of the front view is formed as the projectors intersect the projection plane. It is
important to note that the front view actually ends up behind the back surface of the object.
Let me try to illustrate the concept using three planes of the glass box theory.
Object
Line of Sight
Viewing Station
an infinite distance
from the object
Projectors
(Visual Rays)
Projection Plane
(Picture Plane
Viewing Plane)
Glossary
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An illustration of
first-angle
projection. (The
traditional horizontal
(top), frontal, and
profile (right side)
panels of the glass
box have been
removed for clarity.)
You are looking
down on the
remaining three
sides of the boxa
birds eye view.
Glossary
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= Line of Sight
Glossary
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Front View
Glossary
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The top (horizontal) view is projected from above the object but is created on the plane
below.
Front View
Horizontal
or Top View
Glossary
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As with the previous two projections, the right side view is projected to the opposite side of
the glass box.
Front View
Profile or
Right Side
View
Horizontal
or Top View
Glossary
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Profile or
Right Side
View
Front View
Horizontal
or Top View
Glossary
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Profile or
Right Side
View
Front View
Horizontal
or Top View
Glossary
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The United States and Canada are the only two major countries that use thirdangle projection. All other industrial nations throughout the world use first-angle
projection. It is important that you understand the differences because many U.S.
companies are now internationally established. They will expect you to be able to
read and interpret either method used in engineering documentation.
Front
View
Top
View
Glossary
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MULTI-VIEW
PROJECTION TECHNIQUES
Glossary
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Glossary
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Explanations regarding solution techniques may vary between instructors, but the
results are the same. Verify the projection by placing extension lines between the
end points of the lineview to view, and label the points (care should be taken to
label the separate views consistently).
Glossary
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Establish a fold line somewhere between the views (make certain that the fold line
is perpendicular to the projection lines between the two views). Although the fold
line does not necessarily have to be between the two views, the problem is
simplified by placing it there. Later on, we will discuss placement alternatives.
Glossary
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Glossary
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At the point where the two fold lines intersect, insert a 45 miter line. The miter
line serves to rotate points 90.
Glossary
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Project the points that define the line (1,2), in the right side view, in a direction
that is perpendicular to the fold line that is between the view and the 45 miter
line. Remember, when developing a new view, projectors between the views must
always be perpendicular to the fold lines that separate the two views.
Glossary
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The point formed by the intersection on the 45 miter line is then projected across
the vertical fold line into the horizontal view.
Glossary
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Project points 1 and 2 from the front view into the horizontal (top) view. Notice
that an intersection is formed by this projection line and the horizontal line
projected from the point on the 45 miter line.
Glossary
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Where the two projectors intersect, is the point (end) view of line 1,2. All of the
points are now accounted for in all three views. Label the points.
Glossary
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From a viewing position above the fold line, with the line of sight perpendicular to the
projection plane (represented by the fold line), point 1 would be closer to your eye.
Thus, point 1 is in front of point 2 in the labeling of the horizontal or top view.
1,2
Glossary
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Glossary
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The front and side views of line 1,2 are given. Construct the horizontal or top
view of the line. Begin by verifying the projection. This is done by placing
extension (projection) lines between the views connecting the points.
Glossary
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Position a fold line at some convenient location between the views. Remember, in
every case where fold lines are constructed between adjacent orthographic views,
they must be perpendicular to the projectors.
Glossary
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At some location along the vertical fold line, construct a horizontal fold line.
Glossary
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Construct a miter (45) line through the intersection of the two fold lines.
Glossary
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Project points 1 and 2 from the right side view, up to intersect with the miter line.
Glossary
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At the points where the intersections are formed on the miter line, project lines
into the horizontal (top) view.
Glossary
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From the front view, project points 1 and 2 into the horizontal view to complete
the projection of the line.
Glossary
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Where the projectors intersect in the horizontal view, you have located points 1
and 2. Label and join the points together to complete the projection.
Glossary
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Glossary
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The resulting views represent the correct solution for the top, front, and right side
view of line 1,2.
Glossary
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Glossary
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Verify the projection of the two views by extending parallel lines which connect
the points of the line.
Glossary
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Construct a fold line between and perpendicular to the views of the line.
Glossary
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Next, construct a second fold line perpendicular to the horizontal one, thus
establishing the location for the right side view.
Glossary
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Establish the miter line through the point of intersection of the two fold lines.
Glossary
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Project points 1 and 2 in the top view horizontally across the fold line until they
intersect with the miter line.
Glossary
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From the intersections on the miter line, construct projectors vertically across the
horizontal fold line into the right side view.
Glossary
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Project points 1 and 2 from the front view, across the vertical fold line, into the
right side view.
Glossary
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Where the projectors from the top and front views intersect, you have located
points 1 and 2 in 3-D space. Point 1 lines up with and projects to point 1, and
point 2 likewise, lines up with and projects to point 2 in all other views. Notice
that they project in a completed rectangle. In the strictest order of six-view, glass
box projection theory, this will always be the case. Join and label
the points.
2
Glossary
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Clean up the drawing by removing the projection lines between the views.
Glossary
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The drawing is now complete, showing the front, top, and right side views of the
line.
Glossary
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Glossary
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2
3
3
1
Glossary
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2
3
3
1
Glossary
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Project the points from both views into the right side view.
2
3
3
1
Glossary
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Connect the points the same way they are connected in the parent views.
2
3
3
1
Glossary
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2
3
3
3
1
Glossary
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Glossary
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Glossary
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Glossary
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Project the back surface vertically from the right side view.
Glossary
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Glossary
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Where the two projectors (representing the back surface) intersect, construct a 45 line.
Glossary
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Project the front surface from the right side view until it intersects with the miter
line, then project the point of intersection to the horizontal view to complete the
boundary outline of the top view.
Glossary
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The boundary in the top view can be established with object lines, and the drawing
cleaned up.
Glossary
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From the profile (right side) view, project the vertical surface to the miter line, and
then to the top view.
Glossary
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Glossary
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Glossary
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Glossary
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This problem depicts the verified front and side views of the part. Follow the
same projection technique as in the last problem, but use the front surface to
establish the 45 miter line.
Glossary
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A point is established at the intersection of the projection from the front surface in
both the top and right side views. Project the back surface in the right side view to
intersect with the horizontal projection of the front surface from the top view.
Glossary
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Center your compass on the intersection of the front surface projectors, with a
setting equal to the distance from that point to the intersection formed by the
projection of the back surface from the right side view. Construct the arc to
intersect with the vertical projection of the front surface in the right side view.
Glossary
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Project the back and vertical surface into the top view.
Glossary
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With the boundaries of the top view established, we can clean up the view. Also,
project the features in the right side view, set your compass to the proper radius,
and complete the top view.
Glossary
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Glossary
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Glossary
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VIEW SELECTION
AND
SOLUTION BY PROJECTION
Glossary
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Selecting as the front view the orientation that reveals the most detail about the part,
minimizes the requirements for additional detail projection methods. In this example, for
instance, the same part can be projected without the use of a miter line.
Glossary
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Assuming that the depth is known, and the holes centered on the part, all of the
features of the part can be adequately defined without the use of the miter line.
Glossary
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PICTORIAL VISUALIZATION
Glossary
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Glossary
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Ordinarily, the frontal plane of a technical illustration is on the left side of the
block, and the profile view (right side) is to the right of the frontal plane.
Glossary
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Sketch in the surfaces that are against the boundaries of the block in both the top
and the right side views. And complete the sketch by joining the lines that would
form the intersections of the planes on the part.
Glossary
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If necessary, at this point, you can remove the lines from the sketch that would
have been removed if the model was made from clay or soap.
Glossary
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Your 3-dimensional sketch is now complete, and shows all of the lines necessary
to define the part.
Glossary
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Example Number 1
Glossary
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Glossary
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Glossary
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Identify the end points of each view of the line by labeling them. Verify the
projection of the two views by extending parallel projectors between the two
views.
Glossary
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Next, add a fold line at some location between the views. Remember, the fold line
represents the projection plane onto which the image has been projected, when the
observer is an infinite distance from the lines. Remember also, that the fold line
must always be perpendicular to the projectors.
1
1
2
2
Glossary
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Add a second fold line that is perpendicular to the vertical fold line, and will
separate the top view from the front view.
1
1
2
2
Glossary
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Project points 1 and 2 in the front view across the fold line, into the horizontal
plane.
1
1
2
2
Glossary
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Measure the distances from the vertical fold line to the points in the right side
view, and transfer them into the horizontal view by measuring from the horizontal
fold line to ascertain the position of points 1 and 2 in the top view.
1
1
2
2
Glossary
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A rule worth remembering is that any measurement, from a reference plane or fold
line separating the front and right side views, to any point in the right side view,
will always be duplicated in the top or horizontal view when taken from its
horizontal fold line or reference plane. Now, simply joint the points together with
a line.
a
a
1
1
2
2
Glossary
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The drawing is now complete with a correct solution, and can now be cleaned up.
b
1
a
a
1
1
2
2
Glossary
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Note: Fold lines and reference planes are not present in the final drawing. They
are included here so that you can see the logic of their relationships to the different
views.
Glossary
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Example Number 2
Glossary
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Glossary
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Front and top views of the line are given. You are required to complete the drawing by
adding the right side view of the line. The same basic principles we have practiced before
are followed again to reinforce the concepts. First, extend the projectors between the
views to verify that the projection is accurate (projectors are always parallel to each other,
perpendicular to the fold line, and will line up with the points in each of the two views).
Label the points.
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Glossary
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2
1
Glossary
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2
1
Project the points 1 and 2 from the front view across the vertical fold line into the
area where you will be constructing the right side view. Remember, projectors
must always be perpendicular to the fold line (this rule never changes).
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Glossary
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Glossary
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With the data points established in the right side view, join them together as in the
other views, label them appropriately, and remove the construction lines.
b
2
a
a
2
1
Glossary
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Glossary
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Once again, we have let the fold/reference lines remain for visualization purposes.
Remember, however, they are not included in the final drawing.
Glossary
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Glossary
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Glossary
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Glossary
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Glossary
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Glossary
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Glossary
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Glossary
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Glossary
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Repeat the procedure but measure to the back surface in the top view. Then transfer the
linear distance into the right side view (relative to the vertical fold line), to establish the
location of the back surface of the object in the right side view.
z
x
z
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Glossary
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Next, determine the location of the line in the center of the top view by measuring
carefully from the horizontal fold line, and transfer that linear distance into the right side
view, applying it relative to the vertical fold line. Also, project the intermediate line from
the front view to the right side view.
z
x
z
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Glossary
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Label all of the significant points in all three views, starting with the horizontal or
top view.
z
y
x
y
x
z
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Glossary
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When labeling points, always place the one that is closest to the projection plane first in the order. Points 1 and
7 represent a line which is viewed from the end. Because point 1 is closest to the projection plane in the top
view, it is identified in front of point 7. The same rule applies to points 5 and 6, and 4 and 8 in the top view.
Locate the points in the front and right side views.
3
4, 8
5 6
5,
1, 7
z
9
y
x
y
x
z
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Glossary
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Notice that some points are not labeled. Points are labeled only if they are significant to
the solution of the problem. Examine the views to ascertain whether or not all points in
the right side view are connected the same as they are connected in the front and top
views.
3
2
4, 8
5, 6
5
z
9
1, 7
y
x
y
x
1, 2
4, 3
4, 5
3, 2
8, 6
9, 7
z
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In the front view, points 4 and 8 are connected, as are points 5 and 6. In both the top and
the front views, points 6 and 7 are connected as are points 8 and 9. Connect them in the
right side view.
3
4, 8
5, 6
5
z
9
1, 7
y
x
y
x
1, 2
4, 3
4, 5
3, 2
8, 6
9, 7
z
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Connecting the points in the right side view, the same as they are connected in the
parent views, completes the problem solution. There are no missing lines in any
of the 3 views. A pictorial view of the object will help you to visualize the object.
3
4, 8
5, 6
5
z
9
1, 7
y
x
y
x
1, 2
4, 3
4, 5
3, 2
8, 6
9, 7
z
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This problem represents another solid object. The front and right side views are
complete as shownno lines are missing in either view. You are to project the
top view from the information provided in the two given views. Begin by
extending the projectors between the two given views, to verify the projection.
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In this example, we will use a reference plane instead of a fold line. Remember
that typically, a reference plane either contacts the object, or passes through it.
Lets establish the reference plane through the center of the object in the right side
view.
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Construct a second reference plane, perpendicular to the first, that will pass
through the center of the object in the top or horizontal view.
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Project the points (intersections) from the front view into the top view.
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To establish the boundaries of the top view, take measurements from the reference
plane in the right side view, to the outer limits (front and back) on the baseline or
bottom of the part.
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d2
d1
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The distance d1 is applied by measuring from the reference plane towards the front view (the view in
the middle), while distance d2 is applied from the reference plane, but in a direction oppositeaway
from the front view. Heavy up the outline of size boundaries in the top view, clean up the drawing
and label all of the points.
d2
d1
d2
d1
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Examine the drawing views to ensure that all of the points are connected
consistently in all three views. For example, points 4 and 5 in the right side view
(and front view) are connected with a line. Construct a line in the top view that
connects points 4 and 5. Likewise follow through with all of the other points, to
show connecting lines where intersections of planes occur in the top view.
1
2
5
3, 1
4, 2
4, 3
Glossary
2, 1
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The correct projection of the top view in this problem is now complete. All points
and lines are shown in all views, and have been verified using a reference plane.
2
5
3, 1
4, 2
4, 3
Glossary
2, 1
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A pictorial view of this problem, which is a 4sided pyramid, can assist in visualizing the
characteristics of the model.
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PICTORIAL VISUALIZATION
Problem Number 4a
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Remove the back portion in the same way, creating a triangular prism.
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Next, locate the center point along the ridge at the top, and remove the portion
extending from that point to the baseline on the right side.
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Finally, remove the left portion of the object in the same way you removed the
right side; from the mid-point on the top ridge line to the base of the left side of
the object.
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It should be clear to you now that when viewed from the front and right side, the
resulting views appear as triangles.
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Project all relevant points from the front view into the right side view. Remember the
strict orientation between projectors and reference planes.
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Measure the distance from the horizontal reference plane to the back surface in the
top view, and transfer that distance to the right side viewrelative to the vertical
reference plane.
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In similar fashion, transfer all of the data points from the top view into the right
side view, and using the projections from the front view, complete the boundaries
of the right side view.
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Next, label all of the significant points and intersections in the top view and identify the
corresponding points in the front and right side views.
a
b
a
b
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1, 2
3, 2
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1, 2
3, 2
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AN ALTERNATE SOLUTION
TO THE SAME PROBLEM
Example Problem 5a
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3, 6
1, 2
5, 6
5
Glossary
3, 2
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3, 6
Verify that all of the points joined together with lines in the top
and front views are also connected in the right side view. Notice
that points 4 and 6 are also connected in the top and front views.
Connect points 4 and 6 in the right side view for an alternate
solution.
1, 2
5, 6
5
Glossary
3, 2
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4
6
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INCLINED SURFACES IN
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
Example Number 6
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Orthographic Projection
(Inclined Surfaces)
A
B
C
The top and right side views are complete as shown (no missing lines).
Complete the front view. Note: Surfaces A, B, and C are inclined surfaces
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Inclined Surfaces
From earlier discussions on the subject of inclined surfaces in orthographic
projection, you will recall that an inclined surface is one that is not parallel to any
of the six principle planes on the viewing cube, but it is perpendicular to two of
them. (Whenever a surface is oriented in 3-dimensional space so that it is
perpendicular to one of the six projection planes in the viewing cube (glass box
concept), it logically follows that it would also be perpendicular to the opposite
plane.) Therefore, it would be perpendicular to two of the six planes which make
up the cube. A principle you must remember is that an inclined surface will
always appear as an edge view in those views where it is perpendicular to its
projection plane. In this next problem, we are required to construct a right side
view of an object that has three inclined, planar surfaces. The top and right side
views are complete as shown. The fact that surfaces A, B, and C are inclined in
this problem, limits the possibility of a correct answer to one. Remember, an
inclined surface, in orthographic projection, will display as an edge view of the
surface in one out of every three contiguous orthographic views.
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Given this problem to solve, I would project the points identified in the top view,
into the front view, and extend the top surface in the front view to comply with the
projection form the top view.
A
B
C
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Project the lines defining and delimiting the right side view into the front view.
A
B
C
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Label the points on the highest surface in the top view and transfer the data to the front and
right side views. The height of the object is given in both the front and right side views.
Notice that the left side of the front view displays the full height of the objectas
determined by the right side view. For the time, label only the left portion of the top view.
A
B
C
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Where no hidden lines are given in the top view, which by definition is a complete
view, we are assured that the bottom of the object will fall directly underneath the
outline of the top surface (object lines always take precedence over all other lines
on the drawing). So, extend the bottom surface to the same size extents as the top
surface.
2
4
1
1,2
4,1
3,2
A
B
C
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A basic principle regarding inclined planes is that they will always display as edge views in
one out of three contiguous orthographic views. Notice that points 4 and 3 are separated in
the front view, along the top surface. That fact alone denies the possibility of an edge view of
surface A in the front view. Therefore, lets presume that the edge view of surface A is in the
top view, and assign labels beneath points 3 and 4 in addition to other points defining the top
2
3
view.
4
1
1,2
4,1
3,2
A
B
C
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Points 5, 6, 7, and 8 are all on the same horizontal plane. They are also depicted
connected. Construct a line from point 5 through point 8 in the front view. Also,
based upon the conclusion that the bottom is exactly the same as the top, connect
all of the points on the line directly below points 5 through 8 in the front view.
2
3
6
4
1
1,2
6 7
4, 1
8
7, 5
3, 2
8, 6
B
C
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Lines 3, 6 and 4, 5 are shown to be connected in the top view and right side views.
Connect them in the front view to display surface A. Also, because no hidden lines are
present in the complete top view, we have presumed that the bottom surface has the same
characteristics as the top. Therefore, connect the lines that would imply intersections on
surface C, and show this surface.
2
3
6
4
1
1,2
6 7
4, 1
8
7, 5
3, 2
8, 6
B
C
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Complete the projection drawing of the orthographic views by adding the object
lines in the front view, depicting the intersections shown in the top view, and
outlining the extents of surface B.
A
B
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Understanding that surfaces A, B, and C are inclined, and given the fact that the
top and right side views (as shown) are complete, and no lines are missing in
either, the front view solution is limited to the one we have constructed. Had the
surfaces been oblique, several possible solutions could have been considered.
A
B
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A
B
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click on
image to
animate click outside
for next slide
Glossary
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OBLIQUE SURFACES IN
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
Example Number 7
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Front and top views of this oblique planar surface are given. They are complete as shown.
You are to construct the right side view. To demonstrate the compatibility of the reference
plane and the 45 miter line, both techniques will be shown.
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To complete the right side view, using both a miter line and the measure and transfer
method, you will have to create a reference plane somewhere on or through the object.
For simplification, construct a reference plane that is associated with the frontal line on
the surface in both views.
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Verify the projection by extending the points from the top view into the front
view. Remember, projectors (extension lines) between views must be
perpendicular to the reference plane or fold line set between the views.
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Labeling points can be very helpful. Label the points in the top view and transfer
them to the front view.
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Verify the consistency of the two systems of projection by measuring the points
from the reference plane in the top view, and transferring the locations into the
right side view from its reference plane.
3
6
4
5
2
7
4
1
6
5
7
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Having verified the point locations in the right side view, connect the points in the
same way they are connected in the front and top (parent) views.
3
6
4
5
2
7
2
4
6
5
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The right side view is completeand correct. Both measure and transfer, and use
of the miter line, work well to produce views that would be projected in a line of
sight that is perpendicular to the projection plane on the viewing cube (glass box).
3
6
4
5
2
7
2
4
6
5
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To provide a better understanding how the surface could be viable and actually
exist on a part, a block has been added to the surface to illustrate the relationship
of the surface to the part.
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Oblique Surfaces
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An oblique surface is
one that is neither
parallel nor
perpendicular to any of
the 6 principal planes on
the viewing cube. All
of the surfaces on the
object in the center of
the viewing cube are
parallel and
perpendicular to at least
two of the projection
planes on the cube
except the corner that
has been removed.
Normal views of all
surfaces except the
oblique plane would
result in all six
projection planes.
Oblique Surfaces
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A front view projection results in a normal view of all but the oblique plane.
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Because the oblique surface is not parallel to the projection plane, some of the lines on the
image will be foreshortened, thus the true size and shape view of the oblique surface will
not display on the projection plane.
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A similar problem is encountered in the right side view of the object. A majority
of the surface will be displayed in true size and shape. But the oblique view will
be foreshortened.
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As may be seen, all but the oblique surface is shown in its true size and shape.
Once again, the oblique surface is foreshortened.
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The image on the projection plane is correctprojection wise, but the true size
and shape of the oblique surface is not displayed on the projection plane.
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It should be clear to you by now, that there must be methods of constructing auxiliary
views to display true sizes and shapes of surfaces that are inclined or oblique to viewing
cube projection planes. Those types of developed views will be discussed in unit 2.
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ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
Practice Problems
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Most of the missing lines can be added by projecting feature characteristics from
one view to the other. Project the overall sizes between each view. Then project
the internal characteristics as they apply.
Glossary
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Next, heavy-up the lines that would be visible from your viewing station, and add
any hidden line characteristics that would not be visible from the given
perspective. Be sure to construct a center line depicting the axis of the hole.
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Use either the front or back surface in the top view and locate the hole axis, and
transfer that date point to the right side view.
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Add the missing lines depicting the hole in the right side view.
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The problem is now complete. There are no missing lines in any of the three
views. Clean up the drawing by removing the construction lines.
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While you probably followed a slightly different procedure, your answer and mine
should agree. Yours should look just like this one. A significant number of
practice problems follow. They have been designed to reinforce the principles of
orthographic projection. Do each problem on your own before looking at the key.
Glossary
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This problem also has missing lines in all three views. See how far you can get without
looking at the procedure key that follows. Stop now. Using Problem #2 in your book, add
all of the lines that are missing in each of the three orthographic views. Then check your
work against the next sequence of slides.
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a
b
b
a
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a
b
b
a
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Project either the front or back surface on the object, in both the top and right side
views, to the point of intersection. At that point of intersection, construct a 45
miter line.
Glossary
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Project the significant and obvious points and lines between these two views.
Also, project the basic feature characteristics between the front and top views.
Glossary
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One of the most obvious characteristics is the vertical feature at the back of the
object. Project it vertically from the right side view until an intersection is formed
with the miter line, then horizontally through the object. Convert the projection
line into an object line through the extents of the part (right to left sides).
Glossary
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The surfaces created by the removal of the cornerin the upper right side of the
front view, can be projected to both the top and right side views. Construct object
lines where the actual edge views of the surfaces would be on the object.
Glossary
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Continue projecting the feature characteristics between the views, and where
applicable, clean up the drawing by converting the extension (projection) lines
into the appropriate line style and weight.
Glossary
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Using the miter line again, add the details with reference to the hole in the front
and right side views.
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Complete the drawing by eliminating the construction lines and miter line.
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The drawing is now complete. There is enough graphic information given that
dimensions could be assigned, and the part produced.
Glossary
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This problem also has missing lines in all three views. Follow the same procedure and
complete all three views. Refer to Problem #4 in your book. After completing your solution
sketch, check your work against the series of slides that follow this one.
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Check the drawing carefully to see if any lines are missing in any view. If it is
complete remove your construction lines.
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How did you do? Did you remember the rule about center lines depicting axes of
holes?
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Use Problem #5 in your book, and sketch in all of the missing lines. Employ whatever
technique suits you, but follow the rules governing center and hidden lines. Complete this
problem before checking the key in the slides that follow.
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I will use the 45 miter line as an exclusive method to solve this problem. Begin
by projecting either the front or back surfacein both the front and profile views,
to establish the intersection point through which the miter line must pass (I elected
to use the front surface.
Glossary
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With the miter line set, project the most obvious points and features into the right side and
front views. While doing this task, convert the projection lines into their proper line types
and establish them in the appropriate views. We can start with the vertical element at the
back of the object, and the horizontal shelf in the profile view.
Glossary
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Next project the contours in the top view into the front and side views. You may
also project the center axes for the two holes into the top and profile views. Then
finish the drawing by projecting the hole diameter details into the top and profile
views.
Glossary
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Your answer should be just like this one. If it is not, go back through the
development series and determine where the differences are. Dont rush through
these problems; they are designed to help you understand the projection process
and give you important practice.
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Measure from the front or from the back of the object in the top view to determine the depth
of the protrusion on the right side. Also, measure for location of the intermediate step, and
transfer these two locating measurements to the profile (right side) view. Heavy up the lines
depicting edge views.
d1
d2
d2
d1
Glossary
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Complete the drawing by measuring from the reference plane on the back of the
part, to the center axis of the holein the right side view. Transfer the
measurement to the top view and add the hole at its proper location.
d1
d1
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The problem is complete now, which means that there are no missing lines in any
of the three views. You have probably noticed that in each instance, both
projection and measurements are used to complete the drawings.
Glossary
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In solving this problem, I want you to analyze the drawing carefully. Use Problem #7 in your
book, and add the lines that are missing in each view. Use any technique that you are
comfortable with, but do not look at the solution (next slide), until you have done all you can
do to complete the drawing. When you have finished, advance to the next slide. There will
not be a series of slides to guide you through a process of solving the problemonly the
solution itself. Be sure you understand the solution, and that you are comfortable with at
least one method of achieving the same results.
Glossary
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How closely does your solution resemble the key? Was there any part of this problem that
presented special concerns? Are you prepared to move on? Study and review this problem
until you completely understand the process used to solve it.
Glossary
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Using the illustration on Problem #8 in your book, construct the three standard front, top, and right side
orthographic views of the object. Determine a scale that suits you, and sketch the views of the object,
showing the proper orientation and relationships between the views. When you have completed your
sketch, advance to the next screen and compare your drawing to the answer key.
Front
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Here you see the differences and comparisons on the same slide. Many students, new to the
science of graphics, experience difficulties reading orthographic drawings.
During the Second World War, many women and young people worked in the arms plants
across America. It was discovered that orthographic drawings of parts or assemblies were
difficult for untrained people to understand. In consequence of that finding, pictorial views
were added to assist in the interpretation of complex drawings.
Glossary
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This exercise is similar to the last one. A pictorial drawing of an object is given, and you are
to sketch the three principle orthographic projectionstop, front, and right side views. Use
Problem #9 in your book. Do not continue on to the next slide until you have completed your
sketch. Then check your work against the answer key which follows.
Glossary
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This is the arrangement and orientation of views that you should have drawn in
your sketch. If you do not have this solution, advance to the next screen to see the
pictorial and orthographic projections together on the same slide. Make sure you
understand this development before you progress to the next exercise.
Glossary
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SELF EVALUATION
Orthographic Projection
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Self-Evaluation
Orthographic Projection
There may be missing lines in any, or all of the three views. The solution will not extend beyond the
boundaries of the object lines shown in any view. Using Problem #11 in your book, complete the
drawing by adding the lines that are missing.
Glossary
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Self-Evaluation
Orthographic Projection
There are some things about this exercise that will be slightly different from the previous ones;
the object is cylindrical as shown in the right side view, and the front view is complete as
shown. The projection principles remain constant, so you should have no problem with the
solution. Using Problem #12 in your book, sketch the completed solution.
Glossary
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Self-Evaluation
Orthographic Projection
This problem presents the same challenges that previous problems have; find in any or all of the
orthographic projections of the object, any missing lines that need to be included to properly
display the completed views. Use Problem #13 in your book, and sketch its solution.
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When you are comfortable with the information covered in this presentation, you
will be ready to complete the Content Mastery Evaluation for orthographic
projection. If you feel uncertain about your knowledge related to some of the
basic principles or materials included in this presentation, it may be wise to
consider a careful review. Take the time that is necessary to thoughtfully evaluate
the illustrations and accompanying text to assure yourself that you are ready.
When you feel prepared, call for the evaluation. There are 51 objective questions
in the evaluation on orthographic projection principles and conventional practices.
Good luck!
Glossary
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