Ethical Theory

Consequentialism versus Nonconsequentialism

Consequentialism Consequences alone

determine whether an option is morally correct.

Moderate non-consequentialism Consequences

sometimes determine whether an option is
morally correct.

Extreme non-consequentialism Consequences

never determine whether an option is morally
correct.

Utilitarianism
Founders are Jeremy Bentham and John
Stuart Mill.
One of the first purely secular ethical
theories.
It has deeply influenced economics and
political science.

Utilitarianism
(Consequentialism)

Two parts:
Theory of intrinsically valuable
pleasure, satisfaction of desire, etc.
Principle of right action: Choose the
action of those available which has the
best consequences

Utilitarianism

Example:

Suppose I am a train operator and I notice

someone on a train track who I cannot
alert of the oncoming train. If I divert the
train, then many will die but if I dont then
the one will die. Which should I do?

Utilitarianism -- problems
Too demanding!
Too much calculation!
Incommensurability!
Doesnt fit our moral convictions!

Deontology

Immanuel Kant (17241804) argued morality is founded

on reason and that it always was contrary to reason to break
a moral rule.

Moral obligations take the form of categorical imperatives

not hypothetical imperatives.

You should do y, period.

If want x, then you should do y.

Deontology

The Categorical Imperative:

Act only according to a rule which can be consistently be

willed as a universal law.

Kingdom of ends:

Always treat a rational agent as an end and never treat a

rational agent as merely a means.

Deontology

Thus, if you want to know if an act if morally

permissible, then:

Ask what rule (maxim) you would be

following if you were to take that action.

Ask whether everyone could follow that rule all

the time. If so, then it would be a universal law
and thus the act is permissible; otherwise, it is
not.

Deontology

Promising: Suppose Joe needs to borrow some money but

cannot honor that promise. What is he to do?

First, the relevant rule is:

Promise to repay regardless of whether you can repay it.

Could this rule become a universal law?

No. It would be self-defeating. If this became a universal

practice, then no one would believe such promises and so
no one would provide the loans.

Deontology - Problems

Kant wrote that lying in any circumstances is

the obliteration of ones dignity as a human
being.

We should do only those actions that conform to

rules that we could will to be adopted universally.
If we were to lie, we would be following the rule
It is permissible to lie. This rule could not be
adopted universally, because it would be selfdefeating: people would stop believing one
another, and then it would do no good to lie.
Therefore, we should not lie.

Deontology - Problems

During WWII, Dutch fisherman smuggled Jewish refugees

in their boats. Nazi patrol boats would stop them and ask
where they were going and who was aboard. It appears that
we have a genuine moral conflict between two rules.

It is wrong to lie.
It is wrong to facilitate the murder of innocent people.

Kantian sometimes claim this is simply moral tragedy but

are these are they equally wrong?

Is this form of absolutism plausible?

Virtue Ethics

Aristotle argued that the primary

question of moral philosophy is:

What sort of person should I be?

Any moral theory that takes the first

question as primary is a virtue-ethical
theory.

Virtue Ethics

Virtues have three features:

They are a relatively fixed trait of character or mind.

They typically involve a disposition to think, act, or feel
in certain ways in certain circumstances.
They are the primary basis for judging the overall moral
goodness or worth of a person.

The virtues are character traits that are cultivated they

are not something that one is born with. We learn what is
good or bad, right or wrong in virtue of (no pun intended)
observing virtuous individuals act, feel, and behave.

Virtue Ethics

Aristotle argued that all human activities have some

purpose or end. But what is the purpose of human life?

He argued that the purpose of human life must several

characteristics:

It is an end for which all other ends are pursued,

It is pursued for itself,
It is never pursued as a means for any other end.

Aristotle argued that eudaimonia or human flourishing

(happiness) is the end of human life.

Virtue Ethics - Problems

An action is right just in case it is what a

virtuous agent would, characteristically, do in
the circumstances.

How does one know what to do in a particular

circumstance?
What makes a virtue good?
Is there an essential human nature or stable
characters?

Social Contract Theories

Moral rules are a matter of agreement among

rational individuals and that agreement is the
sole source of moral authority (for example,
John Rawls).

We thus avoid either the state of nature or

prisoners dilemmas.

Prudence and morality are the same thing; moral

behavior is a species of rational behavior.

Contractualism

Social contract theory asks,

Rawls answers,

Under what conditions is the basic structure of society just?

The basic structure of a society is just if, and only if, it satisfies
principles that would be agreed to under fair conditions.

So, he must specify:

Fair initial contractual conditions, and

The principles that would be chosen under those conditions.

Social Contract Theories

Assumptions:

We act out of self-interest (e.g., maximize expected utility)

If we do better cooperating rather than by not cooperating,

then it is in our interest to cooperate.

We do better cooperating rather than by not cooperating

since we avoid the state of nature and prisoners dilemmas.

Hence, it is in our interest to cooperate.

Social Contract Theories Problems

Why should someone not free-ride?

It is in our interest to be constrained

maximizers rather than straightforward
maximizers.

However, this is true only if we are

morally translucent to one another
which is dubious.

Contractarianism - Problems

There are no moral rules concerning who

bargains. The moral rules which are
determined through the bargain apply
only to the bargainers.

Animals and infants are accorded no

direct moral status since they cannot
bargain.

Moral Relativism

The moral code of a society consists

in the set of accepted norms shared
by the moral codes of the individuals.

An action is permissible in a society

when it is consist with the moral code
of that society.

Moral Relativism

Moral differences argument:

Different societies have different moral
codes.
Therefore, morality is relative to ones
society.

Moral Relativism -Problems

Intercultural criticism
Intracultural criticism
Progress