Ethical Issues in Genetically

Modified Organisms (GMOs)

Meeting 8-Bioethics-2014

Apakah yang
dimaksud dengan

Produk teknologi yang mengubah DNA suatu

organisme hidup.

(bacteria, animals, plants)

Istilah lainnya:
Rekayasa genetika (Genetically engineered)
Transgenik (Transgenic)
Teknologi DNA (rDNA) Rekombinan/
(Recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology)

Transgenic bacteria
production of insulin

Other types of Transgenic

bacteria

Degradation of oil spill : gene that

synthesize lipase (fat digesting enzyme)
from animal is inserted into bacteria

Used to clean oil spill that cause water pollution.

Nitrogen fixation : producing bacteria that

can fix nitrogen to increase crops
production.

Other types of Transgenic

bacteria

Anti-freezing bacteria (transgenic) is

sprayed to the plants to prevent the ice
formation.
Eg : tomatoes, strawberries

Production of transgenic
animal

Production of transgenic
animal
2

Meanwhile, desired
genes from other
organism have
been cloned.
Injected the cloned
DNA directly into
the nuclei of
fertilized eggs.

Some of the cells

integrate the
foreign DNA into
their genomes and
are able to express
the foreign gene.

Remove egg cells

from female and
fertilize them in
vitro.
4
Engineered
embryos are
surgically
implanted in a
surrogate mother.

5
Embryo develops
successfullyresult the
transgenic animal

(a) Production of alpha-1 antitrypsin (

AAT )

AAT helps to lower the production of

elastase
If elastase is increased, elastic fibres
of lungs will be destroyed causing
emphysema
Gene coding for the production of AAT
can be inserted into cows DNA
The cow will be able to produce milk
containing AAT

(b) Production of tissue plasminogen

activator (TPA)

TPA is a protein used to dissolve

blood clots in heart attact therapy
Gene coding for the production of
TPA can be inserted into cows DNA
The cow will be able to produce milk
containing TPA

(c)Production of human growth

hormone (HGH)

HGH use to stimulate of human

growth and to prevent the cretinism
of pituitary gland
Gene coding for the production of
HGH can be inserted into cows DNA
The cow will be able to produce milk
containing HGH (for children with
low level of HGH)

transgenic plant

Examples of transgenic plant

1.

Golden rice rice that contains beta-carotene

(Vitamin A), which is not found in regular rice.

2.

Bt corn corn that contains a

chemical normally found in a
bacterium (Bacillus thuringiensis)
that is toxic to insects but not to
humans.

3.

Herbicide resistant plants.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Crops can be modified to:

optimize growth conditions
improve nitrogen assimilation
increase oxygen absorption
efficient photosynthetic pathway
increase starch biosynthesis.

How does this differ from Mendel

and his peas?
GM vs. Selective breading
Selective breading
-slow
-imprecise
-modification of genes that naturally occur in the organism
GM
-very fast
-precise
-can introduce genes into an organism that would not
occur naturally!

Why do it?

Rice- not high in essential nutrients

Modification:
+ daffodil genes and a bacterium = betacarotene content drastically increased
+ genes from a french bean = double the iron
content.

Tomatoes- Introduce genes to increase

shelf life.

How is this done?: Transgenic

tomatoes

Other applications

Potato - modified to produce a beetle killing

toxin
Yellow squash modified to contain to viral
genes that resistant the most common viral
diseases
Develop foods that contain vaccines and
antibodies that offer valuable protection against
diseases such as cholera, hepatitis, and malaria
Canola modified to resist one type of herbicide
or pesticide

Benefits of Genetic Engineering

and Modifying
1. Higher yielding crops, more efficient use of land
2. Can save money and promote higher profits
3. Longer shelf life, less waste
Example// Tomatoes from genetically
modified seeds stay fresh
longer.
4.
Enhanced taste and quality
5.
Reduced maturation time

Benefits of Genetic Engineering

and Modifying
6.

7.

8.
9.

Increased and improved nutrients and stress tolerance

- A single gene genetically engineered into cauliflower can increase
production of beta-carotene 100 times.
- A gene can be implanted into a soybean upgrading the soy
protein
to a quality equal to that of milk.
- Corn can be modified to contain its two limiting amino acids,
lysine or tryptophan
Improved resistance to disease or illness
- Foods can be enhanced with phytochemicals that help maintain
health and reduce the risks of chronic disease.
Improved crop resistance to disease, pests, weeds and herbicides
New products and growing techniques
- Individuals allergic to milk may be able to buy milk that has been
treated with the lactase enzyme (Whiney, 2002).
- Creating decaffeinated coffee beans are in a process of research.

Benefits of Genetic
Engineering and Modifying

Society

Increased food
security for
growing
populations and
growth challenges

(Human Genome Project Information (2003),

http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Hu
man_Genome/elsi/gmfood.shtml)

Risks associated with Genetic

Modification
Safety

1.

Potential human health implications.

Potential environmental impact.

Out-crossing

2.

Inevitable out-crossing of transgenic plants with naturally occurring ones.

Creation of super-weeds

Creation of biological weapons.

Access and Intellectual Property

Domination of world food production by a few

companies and developing countries.

Risks associated with Genetic

Modification cont.
3.

Ethics

4.

Playing God
Tampering with nature by mixing genes among species.

Labeling

5.

Not mandatory in some countries (e.g., Canada and the United

States).
Mixing GM crops with non-GM confounds labeling attempts.

Society

New advances may be skewed to the interests of rich countries.

(Human Genome Project Information (2003),

http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/gmfood.shtml)

Risks with GM continued:

Biodiversity

Addition of Bt gene into plants including corn, potatoes

and cotton to increase resistance to plants
Bt gene obtained from Bacillus thuringiensis (a soil
bacterium that produces a natural insecticide)
Problem: plants producing Bt toxin are releasing toxin in
pollen

Draper, D. (2002). Our Environment: A Canadian Perspective 2nd Ed. Scarborough: Thompson
Canada Lmt.

Pollen from a Bt plant was dusted on to

milkweed:
- only 56% of young monarch butterfly larvae
lived
- whereas pollen from organic plants dusted on the
milkweed produced a survival rate of 100%.
Approximately half of the monarch butterfly
population live in the corn belt of the USA
= this new gene could have serious repercussions
for this organism

Ethics in genetic
engineering

Genetically modified organism might be:

Hazardous (dangerous) to health
or ecologically harm to the environment
GMFs may not be totally safe for all
consumers

Transgenic plants might become superweeds

(difficult to control)
Unethical to create genetically superior
organisms, including humans
Humans are playing God by tampering
genetics materials and creating new
organisms

Canadian Food Inspection Agency

Genetically modified foods are currently

regulated by the CFIA
works collaboratively with Environment
Canada, Health Canada, and Fisheries
and Oceans
Goal: to ensure that products of
biotechnology are considered safe to
human and animal health and the
environment.
According to the CFIA, the assessment

PERATURAN PEMERINTAH
REPUBLIK INDONESIA
NOMOR 21 TAHUN 2005
TENTANG
KEAMANAN HAYATI PRODUK
REKAYASA GENETIK

PERATURAN
KEPALA BADAN PENGAWAS OBAT
DAN MAKANAN
REPUBLIK INDONESIA
NOMOR HK.03.1.23.03.12.1563
TAHUN 2012
TENTANG
PEDOMAN PENGKAJIAN
KEAMANAN PANGAN
PRODUK REKAYASA GENETIK

PERATURAN
KEPALA BADAN PENGAWAS OBAT
DAN MAKANAN
REPUBLIK INDONESIA
NOMOR HK.03.1.23.03.12.1564
TAHUN 2012
TENTANG
PENGAWASAN PELABELAN
PANGAN PRODUK REKAYASA
GENETIK

5. Patented Organisms
The advent of genetic manipulations of organisms inevitably raised the question of patents for such organisms.
Patents secure the right to make, license, or sell the item in question, and some genetically modified organisms are of
considerable commercial interest. Until recently the US Patent Office had no history of dealing with such organisms.
When first approached on the matter, it rejected the attempt to patent a modified bacterium. The US Supreme Court
set that decision aside, opening the door to the patenting of all manner of living organisms.
Patents are secured for new, useful, and nonobvious processes. In the 1980 case of Diamond v. Charkrabarty, the US
Supreme Court held that genetically modified organisms could be patented as items of manufacture or new
composition. The justices affirmed a broad interpretation of congressional intent in developing patent law. They
asserted that Charkrabartys bacterium did not exist in nature but was a creation of the inventor, and that it had a
novel character and use. It was modified to help break down crude oil and would thus be useful in cleaning up oil
spills.
In 1988 the US Patent Office granted a patent on a genetically engineered mouse that contained a gene that made it
highly susceptible to cancer, and thus was useful in testing suspected cancer-causing substances. This precedent
opened the door for patents on all kinds of organisms whose genes have been modified for one reason or another.
The Patent Office was not persuaded by various objections to these patents, in particular, the assertions that these
genetic modifications violated the organisms natural integrity. Biologists do not claim that there is a specific boundary
for the borders of a species. Moreover, species exhibit many genetic changes in nature; their genomes are not fixed
forever. Finally, it is unclear species have moral right to remain unchanged forever. Nevertheless, the public still
sometimes expresses concern about the nature and limits of genetic modification of organisms.
Study Questions
1. Do boundaries of nature in organisms exist such that humans should not produce transgenic animals
that combine genes from more than one species?
2. The right of patent gives the researcher licensing control over the use and production of such
organisms. Do you agree that it is wise to allow researchers to patent new organisms? Or should such
organisms be in the public domain to be produced and used as the public wishes?
3. How convincing is the view that no organismno animal, no planthas the right to remain
genetically unchanged forever?

6. Franken-Food
Genetic alterations are useful in producing human food. Animals can be modified to produce larger amounts of
products, and crops can be altered to produce greater yields or be resistant to disease. Cloning techniques are being
used to produce cattle that could be used for milk and meat. Most ethical concerns associated with these developments
involve the safety of humans who might eat this food and the impact of introducing genetically altered organisms into
the environment.
Many animals are genetically modified to improve production and to produce new drugs. In 2002, the National
Academy of Sciences issued a report warning that transgenic animals could pose food safety risks. In addition, concerns
were raised about the welfare of animals produced through genetic interventions. However, the main focus of the
report was on the way in which these animals might affect the environment. In particular, the government might not be
ready or able to identify and prevent environmental risks coming from them.
The report referred to a genetically modified salmon as an example. This kind of salmon grows exceptionally fast. If it
were approved for human consumption, it would be extremely desirable for commercial fisheries because it could be
brought to market more quickly than other kinds of salmon. The report raised the possibility that this new salmon could
hurt stocks of salmon in the wild. If the new salmon escaped from their breeding pens, they might displace salmon in
the wild not only because they mature more quickly but also because they grow larger than most wild species. The
larger size could give them significant advantage in predator-prey relationships. Most experts believe that escape to the
wild by some fish is inevitable. As a way of controlling the risk, the developer of the salmon, Aqua Bounty Farms in
Massachusetts, said it would create a stock that consisted entirely of sterilized females.
The FDA indicated that genetically modified animals intended for use as human food would be subject to the same
regulations that govern new animal antibiotics and growth hormones. However, the report from the National Academy
of Sciences raised an important legal concern: whether the FDA has the authority to deal with environmental risks of
transgenic animals as against risks to humans.
The report also commented that cloned animals are on the horizon, with companies already cloning beef and dairy
cattle. In 2001, the FDA ordered these animals kept from the food chain, and the director of the Center for Veterinary
Medicine at the FDA said that the agency will bar cloned animals from the food supply until further research is done.
Study Questions
1. Why are moral concerns raised about introducing genetic modifications into plants and animals used
as human food?
2. Dangers to the environment cannot be fully predicted when developing genetically modified
organisms. Do you think this means that researchers should not modify organisms used by humans for
food?
3. Are risks to the environment from genetically modified food so great that it should not be produced at
all?