Digital&Analolg Signaling

Introduction to Telephony
Part II
Digital Signaling
By:
Michael Whitley (mwhitley)

Gonzalo Salgueiro (gsalguei)
Voice Quality
2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.
Digital Telephony
Voice Quality
Benefits of Digital
No signal attenuation on digital circuits.
No echo generated on digital circuits.
Discrete values (i.e. binary 0/1) do not suffer signal degradation and
thus can operate in low SNR environments.
Repeaters, on digital circuits, regenerate perfect pulses whereas
amplifiers, on analog circuits, boost signal strength and noise levels.
Easy to switch and manipulate signal with digital components.
Built in error checking routines into signal/frame (i.e. CRC).
Higher speeds
Greater call density (TDM based)
Statistics collection (FDL)
Digitizing Voice
Assumption is that human speech information is

contained in the range of 300-3400 Hz
Filter & use signal below 4 kHz to prevent aliasing
Digital Telephony
Pulse Code Modulation - Nyquist Theorem
The sampling frequency must be at least 2 times the largest
frequency being sampled for signal replication.
Analog Audio Source
Codec Technique
Sampling Stage
= Sample
8 kHz (8,000 Samples/Sec)
Voice Bandwidth =
300 Hz to 3400 Hz
Pulse Code Modulation

Analog to Digital Conversion
ALaw (Europe)
Quantizing Noise
100100111011001
Stage 1
Law (USAJapan)
Quantizing Stage
6
Non-Linear vs. Linear Encoding

Output
Input
Output
Input
Non- Linear Encoding

Closely Follows Human
Voice Characteristics
High Amplitude Signals Have
More Quantization Distortion
(Both a- & - Law)
Linear Encoding
Relatively Easy to Analyze,
Synthesize, and Regenerate
All Amplitudes Have Roughly
Equal Quantization Distortion
7
Companding (a-law vs. -law)

ITU defines two types of PCM (G.711) algorithms:
-law
a-law
Both operate at 8-bits per sample and use values between 0 and +/- 127 to
represent signal amplitude
Both operate on a logarithmic scale
Maximum level for -law is +3.17 dBM0
Maximum level for a-law is +3.14 dBM0

For louder input both algorithms operate similarly
For softer input the added granularity of -law results in slightly improved
signal to quantizing distortion ratio
-law has a slightly higher overall quantizing noise since it does not have a
digital representation for silence (i.e. all zeroes)
Digitizing Voice
Bit Rate Of Digital Voice
= 2 x 4 kHz x 8 bits per sample
= 64,000 bits per second
CODEC
PCM
= DS-0
64 KBPS
DS-1
Voice Quality
10
DS-1 Basics
DS-1 Frame Format
TS1
TS2
TS3
TS23
TS24
8 bits * 24 timeslots = 192 bits + F bit=193bits/frame

193 bits/frame * 8000fps = 1544000bps
Each Timeslot:
sampled at 8000 times per second ~ 2 times voice spectrum
8000 samples/sec * 8 bits/sample = 64000 bps
24 DS0s make up a DS1 frame
11
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

DS-0
DS-1
2nd Cycle
1st Cycle
DS-2
DS-3
6 5 4 32 10
6 54 3 2 10
DS-4
DS-5
TimeSlots n
DS-6
The incoming DS0 is encoded and ready for

transmission now
DS0s are bundled into DS1s (T1s) for delivery across

the network.
T1 Framing used to accomplish this.
Synchronous TDM is used to extract the DS0s from
the DS1s using a clock source for reference.
12
DS-1 Linecoding
AMI - Alternate Mark Inversion
B8ZS - Bipolar 8-Zero Substitution

8 successive 0s are replaced by: 000VB0VB where,
V is a bipolar violation and
B is a mark adhering to the AMI rule
13
DS-1 Frame Format

Each DS-0 is an independent 8-bit voice channel.
DS-1 frames are generated every 125 Sec.
Frame #1
DS-0 #1
DS-0 #2
DS-0 #3
DS-0 #4
.......
DS-0 #24
Frame #2
DS-0 #1
DS-0 #2
DS-0 #3
DS-0 #4
.......
DS-0 #24
Frame #3
DS-0 #1
DS-0 #2
DS-0 #3
DS-0 #4
.......
DS-0 #24
DS-0 #4
.......
DS-0 #24
:
Frame #12
DS-0 #1
:
DS-0 #2
:
DS-0 #3
12 frames make up a Super Frame

24 frames make up an Extended Super Frame (ESF)
14
ESF Frame
Frame1
Frame2
Frame3
Frame4
Frame5
Frame6
Frame7
Frame8
Frame9
Frame10
Frame11
Frame12
Frame13
Frame14
Frame15
Frame16
Frame17
Frame18
Frame19
Frame20
Frame21
Frame22
Frame23
Frame24
TS1
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
M - FDL
TS2
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
TS6
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
C - CRC
TS12
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
TS18
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
TS24
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
F Bit
M
C
M
0
M
C
M
0
M
C
M
1
M
C
M
0
M
C
M
1
M
C
M
1
001011 - Terminal Pattern

15
DS-1 SF/ESF Frame Format

SF
ESF
Frame
Framing bit
Number Terminal Signalling
1
1
2
0
3
0
4
0
5
1
6
1
7
0
8
1
9
1
10
1
11
0
12
0
7
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
Bit in Timeslot
6 5 4 3 2 1
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
SF: terminal pattern of alternating 0/1s in every

other frame
ESF: terminal pattern of 001011 pattern over
every 4th frame
SF: signaling done in LSB of frames 6 & 12
ESF signaling done in LSB of frames 6,12,18,24
ESF: contains 2k CRC and 4k FDL
0
d
d
d
d
d
A
d
d
d
d
d
B
Frame
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
Framing bit
Term CRC FDL
M
C1
M
0
M
C2
M
0
M
C3
M
1
M
C4
M
0
M
C5
M
1
M
C6
M
1
Bit in Timeslot
7 6 5 4 3 2
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
d d d d d d
1
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
16
0
d
d
d
d
d
A
d
d
d
d
d
B
d
d
d
d
d
C
d
d
d
d
d
D
Debugging T1
3660a#show controller t1 2/0
T1 2/0 is down.
Applique type is Channelized T1
Cablelength is long gain36 0db
Transmitter is sending remote alarm.
Receiver has loss of signal.
Version info Firmware: 19990702, FPGA: 6
Framing is ESF, Line Code is B8ZS, Clock Source is Line.
Data in current interval (774 seconds elapsed):
0 Line Code Violations, 0 Path Code Violations
0 Slip Secs, 774 Fr Loss Secs, 0 Line Err Secs, 0 Degraded Mins
0 Errored Secs, 0 Bursty Err Secs, 0 Severely Err Secs, 774 Unavail Secs
Data in Interval 1:
0 Line Code Violations, 0 Path Code Violations
0 Slip Secs, 900 Fr Loss Secs, 0 Line Err Secs, 0 Degraded Mins
0 Errored Secs, 0 Bursty Err Secs, 0 Severely Err Secs, 900 Unavail Secs
Receive states are:

Loss of signal - controller doesnt see marks on the T1.
Loss of frame - controller sees T1 marks, but cant frame up with the F-bit.
Yellow alarm - controller sees a Yellow Alarm on its Rx path due to remote transmitter losing its Rx.
17
Debugging T1
DTE
DCE
DCE
DSUCSU
DSUCSU
Local
Loopback
controller T1 1/0/1
framing esf
linecode b8zs
loop local
channel-group 1 timeslots 1-24
!
interface Serial1/0/1:1
ip address 1.1.1.1 255.255.255.0
Telco
DTE
Remote
Loopback
For Framing SF & Linecode AMI use:

channel-group 1 timeslots 1-24 speed 56
AMI doesnt support Clear Channel 64K DS0.
When debugging layer 1 T1 problems, use a loopback test to verify router

hardware
When running a loopback to the telco use pings with varying data patterns
to ensure proper linecoding (sample patterns: all 1s, all 0s, etc.)
18
DS-1 Signaling Types
In-band/Out-of-band
In-band refers to signaling which uses the same frequency

range as a voice call - ie DTMF tones, busy signal, ringback
Out-of-band uses a different frequency range that voice call - ie

loop current signaling, ringing voltage
In-channel/Out-of-channel
In-channel refers to signaling information using the same

channel as the voice/data i.e. RBS
Out-of-channel uses a different channel than the voice/data

i.e. D-channel in ISDN
Channel Associated Signaling (CAS) is a form of in-channel,

in-band signaling
Common Channel Signaling (CCS) is a form of out-of-channel,

in-band signaling
19
Signaling in DS-1
Common Channel Signaling (CCS)
Instead of robbed bit, robbed ds0
Example: ISDN
Channel Associated Signaling (CAS)

Example: Robbed bit Signaling (RBS)
Frame #1
DS-0 #1
DS-0 #2
DS-0 #3
DS-0 #4
.......
DS-0 #24
DS-0 #24 always provides signaling

information for DS-0 #1 through #23.
20
ISDN
Voice Quality
21
ISDN Protocol Architecture

B-channels - Voice
Packetized Voice
D-channel - Signaling
q921, q931
D-channel - Signaling
q921, q931
WAN
B1B2D-
B- Channel
Layer-3
Voice
LAP-D
(Q921)
Layer-2
Physical
Layer-1
For Signaling
B1B2D-
D- Channel
Q.931
B-channels - Voice
Separate channels for signaling

and data (referred to as out-ofband)
ISDN allows integration of
voice, video and data over a
single media
Physical
For Data Flow

22
BRI
192
kbps total speed

2 B-channels at 64 kbps
1 D-channel at 16 kbps
48 kbps framing and synchronization
Requires an NT1 device
Point-to-multipoint
64 Kbps
64 Kbps
{
2B
BRI
16 Kbps
64K*2 + 16k
+ 48K (framing bits) =
192 Kbps
23
PRI
1.544 kbps total speed
23 B-channels at 64 kbps
1 D-channel at 64 kbps (channel 24)
8 kbps framing and synchronization
ESF/B8ZS
Point to point
64 Kbps
23B
PRI
64 Kbps
64K*24 + 8K (framing bits)
=1.544 Mbps (T1)
24
ISDN Standards
Physical Layer (1)

BRI - ITU-T I.430
PRI - ITU-T 1.431
Data Link Layer (2)
ITU-T Q.921
Network Layer (3)
ITU-T Q.931
25
Q.921
Switch
ISDN BRI
Q.921
WAN
ISDN PRI
Switch
Q.921
Q.921 protocol is used between the TE and the local ISDN switch
(not end-to-end)
The ISDN network does not impose the use of any data link layer protocol
for the B channels
Full duplex protocol
Responsible for sending/receiving error-free data
Q.921 LAPD (Link Access Procedure on the D channel) is modeled after
HDLC and LAPB (X.25).

26
Q.931
Switch
ISDN BRI
Q.931
WAN
ISDN PRI
Switch
Q.931
Q.931 protocol is used between the TE and the local ISDN switch
(not end-to-end)
The ISDN network does not impose the use of any network layer protocol
for the B channels
Full duplex protocol
Message based protocol responsible for call setup and call teardown
Q.931 signaling is encapsulated in Q.921 frames
27
Debugging ISDN
Voice Quality
28
Troubleshooting ISDN
B-Channel
Q.931
Global ISDN Switchtype = primary-ni
ACTIVE indicates that the

physical wiring looks good
ACTIVE
LAPDQ.921
Physical
Layer 1 Status:
Physical
dsl 0, interface ISDN Switchtype = primary-ni
Data Link
Voice
Samples
ISDN Serial2/0:23 interface
I.430 (BRI)I.431 (PRI)
Layer 2 Status:
TEI = 0, Ces = 1, SAPI = 0, State = MULTIPLE_FRAME_ESTABLISHED
Layer 3 Status:
1 Active Layer 3 Call(s)
Indicates the ISDN interface and Telco switch are have

successfully negotiated Q.921 (ISDN L2) parameters
CCB:callid=1F, sapi=0, ces=0, B-chan=23, calltype=VOICE

Active dsl 0 CCBs = 1
The Free Channel Mask: 0x803FFFFF

Number of L2 Discards = 0, L2 Session ID = 3
Total Allocated ISDN CCBs = 1
Network
vnt-3660-33a#show isdn status
D-Channel
29
Troubleshooting ISDN Layer 2

TEI and SAPI belong to the Address field of the datalink Q.921 frame.
ISDN Layer 2 establishment:

vnt-3745-32a#debug isdn q921
debug isdn q921 is
ON.
TEI: Terminal Endpoint Identifier : Identifies a terminal

TEI = 0-63 are used for fixed TEIs
TEI = 64 to 126 are reserved for assignment at activation
TEI = 127 is reserved for bradcasting
SAPI: Service Access Point Identifier : Defines the message type
SAPI = 0 is used for Q931 signaling information
SAPI = 16 is used for X.25 on the D-channel
vnt-3745-32a#
Feb 6 22:03:42.049: ISDN Se1/0:23 Q921: User TX -> SABMEp sapi=0 tei=0
Feb 6 22:03:43.048: ISDN Se1/0:23 Q921: User TX -> SABMEp sapi=0 tei=0
Feb 6 22:03:43.056: ISDN Se1/0:23 Q921: User RX <- UAf sapi=0 tei=0
Feb 6 22:03:53.042: ISDN Se1/0:23 Q921: User RX <- RRp sapi=0 tei=0 nr=0
Feb 6 22:03:53.042: ISDN Se1/0:23 Q921: User TX -> RRf sapi=0 tei=0 nr=0
Feb 6 22:04:03.035: ISDN Se1/0:23 Q921: User RX <- RRp sapi=0 tei=0 nr=0
Feb 6 22:04:03.039: ISDN Se1/0:23 Q921: User TX -> RRf sapi=0 tei=0 nr=0
Q.921
TE
NET
30
Debugging Q931 Call Setup

Switc
h
ISDN PRI
WAN
Switch
ISDN PRI
Outgoing
Call Made
Call Accepted
31

Layer 3 call establishment for a DID call:
Feb 7 15:10:01.544: ISDN Se2/0:23 Q931: RX <- SETUP pd = 8 callref = 0x000D
Bearer Capability i = 0x8090A2
Standard = CCITT
Transfer Capability = Speech
Transfer Mode = Circuit
Transfer Rate = 64 kbit/s
Channel ID i = 0xA18397
Preferred, Channel 23
Calling Party Number i = 0x21, 0x81, '9199915622'
Plan:ISDN, Type:National
Called Party Number i = 0xC1, '5552104'
Plan:ISDN, Type:Subscriber(local)
32
Feb 7 15:10:01.548: ISDN Se2/0:23 Q931: TX -> CALL_PROC pd = 8 callref =0x800D

Channel ID i = 0xA98397
Exclusive, Channel 23
Feb 7 15:10:02.152: ISDN Se2/0:23 Q931: TX -> ALERTING pd = 8 callref = 0x800D
Progress Ind i = 0x8288 - In-band info or appropriate now available
Feb 7 15:10:16.205: ISDN Se2/0:23 Q931: TX -> CONNECT pd = 8 callref = 0x800D

Feb 7 15:10:16.221: ISDN Se2/0:23 Q931: RX <- CONNECT_ACK pd = 8 callref = 0x000D
Q.931
NET
TE
33
Debugging Q931 Call Disconnect

Switc
h
ISDN PRI
WAN
ISDN PRI
Switc
h
34
Debugging Q931 Call Tear Down

Layer 3 call tear down :
Feb 7 15:11:15.339: ISDN Se2/0:23 Q931: RX <- DISCONNECT pd = 8 callref =

0x000D
Cause i = 0x8290 - Normal call clearing
Feb 7 15:11:15.339: ISDN Se2/0:23 Q931: TX -> RELEASE pd = 8 callref = 0x800D
Feb 7 15:11:15.359: ISDN Se2/0:23 Q931: RX <- RELEASE_COMP pd = 8 callref =

0x000D
Troubleshooting Tips:
Always be aware of message direction to know who placed/cleared a call
Most disconnect cause codes are self explanatory (so dont try to make them difficult!)
Use show isdn service to determine available B-channels
Find out which part of the call establishment is failing, and determine if the problem
seems to be in the ISDN negotiation or in the VoIP negotiation.
35
Channel Associated Signaling
Voice Quality
36
CAS Signaling on T1
Channel Associated Signaling (CAS) robs the least significant bit
from the voice channel to convey supervisory signaling
These robbed bits are known as A/B/C/D bits and they are in every
sixth frame of a DS-1
Super Frame (SF) - A/B
Extended Super Frame (ESF) - A/B/C/D
Throughput is capped at 56k for RBS circuits since 1 of every 8 bits

is robbed from every DS0
Robbing the LSB for voice has no noticeable effect, whereas all bits
carry equal weight in the case of data
Common CAS signaling types used in digital RBS are:
fxs/fxo loop start
fxs/fxo ground start

E&M (immediate, wink-start, fgd, delay)
37
Digital Signaling Schemes

LSB
DS-1 Frame
Bit
A
B
C
D
Framing
Bit
Audio
Address Signaling
(DTMF)
Supervision
On/Off Hook
Frame
6th
12th
18th
24th
Address Signaling
(Dial Pulse)
38
ESF RBS Frame

Frame1
Frame2
Frame3
Frame4
Frame5
Frame6
Frame7
Frame8
Frame9
Frame10
Frame11
Frame12
Frame13
Frame14
Frame15
Frame16
Frame17
Frame18
Frame19
Frame20
Frame21
Frame22
Frame23
Frame24
TS1
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
1234567A
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
1234567B
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
1234567C
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
1234567D
TS2
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
1234567A
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
1234567B
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
1234567C
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
1234567D
M - FDL
C - CRC
TS6
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
1234567A
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
1234567B
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
1234567C
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
1234567D
TS12
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
1234567A
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
1234567B
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
1234567C
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
1234567D
001011 - Terminal Pattern
TS18
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
1234567A
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
1234567B
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
1234567C
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
1234567D
TS24
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
1234567A
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
1234567B
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
1234567C
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
1234567D
F Bit
M
C
M
0
M
C
M
0
M
C
M
1
M
C
M
0
M
C
M
1
M
C
M
1
ABCD - RBS Bits

39
E&M Signaling
Simplest of the digital signaling protocols
Provides both disconnect and answer supervision as
well as glare avoidance
Standard (E&M) Trunk Type A/B Bits

Direction
Txmit
Txmit
Receive
Receive
State
On Hook
Off Hook
On Hook
Off Hook
A
0
1
0
1
B C
0 0
1 1
0 0
1 1
D
0
1
0
1
40
E&M Signaling
There are 4 types of E&M Signaling that are supported on
Cisco routers:
wink-start (fgb) wink is used to notify the remote side it can send the
DNIS.
wink-start with wink-acknowledge (fgd) similar to wink, except a

second wink is used to acknowledge the receipt of DNIS. Sending ANI
after the wink-ack is also an option.
immediate start off-hook is immediately followed by DNIS. No

winks are involved.
delay-start similar to wink-start. Wink is variable length and should

remain active until receiver is ready to accept DNIS.
For a more detailed explanation of each of these signaling protocols,

refer to Part I - Analog Telephony.
41
E&M Signaling
6
A=1 B=1
A=0 B=0
2
4
A=1 B=1
3
Incoming Call (Network Router):

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
A=0 B=0
Network goes off-hook. A-bit = 1, B-bit =1

Router sends wink. A-bit =1, B-bit =1 for 200ms. This only occurs when using wink-start or winkstart with wink acknowledgement. Ignore this step for immediate start.
Network sends DNIS information (typically in-band dtmf tones).
Router sends a wink acknowledgement. A-bit =1, B-bit = 1 for 200ms. This only occurs for wink-start
with wink acknowledgement. Ignore this step for immediate start or wink-start.
Router goes off-hook when call is answered. A-bit =1, B-bit =1.
Outgoing Call (Router Network): Same procedure as above except the Network' described
above would be the Router' and vice-versa. This is due to the fact that the signaling is symmetric.
Call Disconnect (Network Router):

6)
Network goes 'on-hook'. A-bit = 0, B-bit = 0
7)
CPE will go 'on-hook'. A-bit = 0, B-bit = 0

Note: Disconnect (Router Network)

is also symmetrical.
42
FXS/FXO Loop Start Signaling

Loop start signaling was originally designed as a
station side signaling protocol (i.e. channel bank) but
can be used as a trunk signaling protocol.
Loop start is not widely deployed as a digital signaling
protocol.
In loop start signaling the FXS side only uses the B bit
and the FXO side only uses the A bit to communicate
call information.
A big disadvantage of loop start signaling is the lack of
disconnect supervision and answer supervision due to
no defined state change from FXS to FXO.
Another limitation of loop start signaling is that it
provides no incoming call channel seizure. Therefore
a glare situation could arise where both parties (FXO &
FXS) try to simultaneously place calls.
43
FXS/FXO Loop Start State Table
Note: State Table

is from FXOs
Perspective.
Disconnect
Supervision is
done with A bit
44
FXS/FXO Loop Start Signaling

1
Incoming Call (Network Router):

1)
Network toggles B-bit to indicate ringing. Standard U.S. ringing cadence (i.e. 2sec on, 4sec off).
2)
Router will detect the 'ringing' and go 'off-hook'. A-bit goes from 0 to 1.
Outgoing Call (Router Network):

3)
Router will go 'off-hook'. A-bit goes from 0 to 1.
4)
Network will provide dial-tone. No signaling change.
5)
Router will send digits (typically in-band dtmf tones).
Disconnect (Network Router):

6)
Router detects in-band that the call has dropped (i.e. supervisory tones).
7)
Router will go 'on-hook'. A-bit goes from 1 to 0.

Disconnect (Router Network):

only step 7 will occur
45
FXS/FXO Ground Start Signaling

Very similar to loop start signaling
Inherent deficiencies in loop start were resolved
Advantages over loop start include:

Glare prevention via channel seizure instead of only ringing
Answer & disconnect supervision via state change when FXS
transitions between off-hook & on-hook
Better trunk signaling method, yet still makes station provisioning

simple
Some disadvantages are:
Not widely deployed
More complex state machines
46
FXS/FXO GroundStart State Table
Note: State Table

is from FXOs
perspective
47
FXS/FXO Ground Start Signaling

3
1
8
Incoming call (NetworkRouter):

1)
2)
3)
Network goes off-hook. A-bit transitions from 1 to 0. Ringing also occurs by B-bit
toggling between 0 and 1 (0=ringing, 1=no ringing).
Router detects ringing AND seizure and goes off-hook via A-bit = 1.
Network stops ringing. B-bit is now 1. A-bit still equals 0.
Outgoing call (RouterNetwork):

4)
5)
6)
7)
Router transmits ground on ring by setting B-bit to 0. A-bit already 0.

Network goes off-hook. A-bit goes from 1 to 0. B-bit is set to 1
Router goes off-hook. A-bit & B-bit transition from 0 to 1.
Router detects in-band dial tone and typically sends in-band DTMF digits.
Disconnect (NetworkRouter):
8)
9)
Network goes on-hook. A-bit transitions from 0 to 1.

Router goes on-hook. A-bit transitions from 1 to 0.
Note:
Disconnect (RouterNetwork)
Steps 8&9 above will be reversed
48
Debugging CAS
Voice Quality
49
Debugging Topology
5400
PBX
3745
PBX
IP
T1 E&M
Wink Start
Setup Direction
T1 E&M
Wink Start
Disconnect Direction
50
Debugging CAS
On AS5xxx platforms use the debug cas command to
troubleshoot CAS signaling issues.
Debug output on an AS5400 for an inbound CAS wink-start call:
/* Inbound call comes into the router (i.e. network goes off-hook) */
*May 27 23:44:21.979: from Trunk(7): (2/0): Rx LOOP_CLOSURE (ABCD=1111)
/* 200 msec wink sent by the router */
*May 27 23:44:22.199: from Trunk(7): (2/0): Tx LOOP_CLOSURE (ABCD=1111)
*May 27 23:44:22.399: from Trunk(7): (2/0): Tx LOOP_OPEN (ABCD=0000)
/* Router receives DNIS digits and then goes off-hook once call is answered */
*May 27 23:44:30.375: from Trunk(7): (2/0): Tx LOOP_CLOSURE (ABCD=1111)
/* Disconnect received by the router (i.e. call was connected for approx. 121 seconds) */
*May 27 23:46:31.443: from Trunk(7): (2/0): Rx LOOP_OPEN (ABCD=0000)
/* Router disconnects call from its side */
*May 27 23:46:31.759: from Trunk(7): (2/0): Tx LOOP_OPEN (ABCD=0000)
51
Debugging CAS
vnt-5400-37a#show controller t1 7/2 timeslots 1-24
T1 7/2 is up:
Loopback: NONE
DS0 Type
Modem
<-> Service Channel

Rx
Tx
State State
ABCD ABCD
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1 cas
- insvc idle
0000 0000
2 cas-voice
- insvc connected
1111 1111
3 cas
- insvc idle
0000 0000
4 cas
- insvc idle
0000 0000
5 cas
- insvc idle
0000 0000
6 cas
- insvc idle
0000 0000
7 cas
- insvc idle
0000 0000
8 cas
- insvc idle
0000 0000
9 cas
- insvc idle
0000 0000
10 cas
- insvc idle
0000 0000
11 cas
- insvc idle
0000 0000
12 cas
- insvc idle
0000 0000
13 cas
- insvc idle
0000 0000
14 cas
- insvc idle
0000 0000
15 cas
- insvc idle
0000 0000
16 cas
- insvc idle
0000 0000
17 cas
- insvc idle
0000 0000
18 cas
- insvc idle
0000 0000
19 cas
- insvc idle
0000 0000
20 cas
- insvc idle
0000 0000
21 cas
- insvc idle
0000 0000
22 cas
- insvc idle
0000 0000
23 cas
- insvc idle
0000 0000
24 cas
- insvc idle
0000 0000
52
Debugging CAS
On 26xx/36xx/37xx platforms use the debug vpm signaling
command to troubleshoot CAS signaling issues.
*Apr 23 17:04:35.807: htsp_timer_stop3 htsp_setup_req
*Apr 23 17:04:35.807: htsp_process_event: [1/1:0(1), EM_ONHOOK,
E_HTSP_SETUP_REQ]em_onhook_setup
*Apr 23 17:04:35.807: em_offhook (0)vnm_dsp_set_sig_state:
[recEive and transMit1/1:0(1)] set signal state = 0x8
/* Router goes off-hook */
*Apr 23 17:04:35.807: htsp_process_event: [1/1:0(1),
EM_BRANCH, EM_EVENT_WINK]
*Apr 23 17:04:35.807: em_start_timer: 550 ms
*Apr 23 17:04:35.811: htsp_timer - 550 msec
/* Router receives off-hook part
EM_WAIT_WINKUP, E_DSP_SIG_1100]em_wink_offhook
of wink*/
*Apr 23 17:04:36.059: em_stop_timers
*Apr 23 17:04:36.059: htsp_timer_stop
/* Router receives on-hook part
EM_WAIT_WINKDOWN, E_DSP_SIG_0000]em_wink_onhook
of wink- duration is 200ms*/
*Apr 23 17:04:36.259: htsp_timer_stop htsp_wink_ind
53
Debugging CAS
/* Router transmits DNIS digits. Not seen
*Apr 23 17:04:36.331: htsp_process_event: [1/1:0(1), via debug vpm signal. View outbound
EM_WAIT_DIALOUT_DELAY, E_HTSP_EVENT_TIMER] digits with debug vtsp session */
em_imm_send_digits em_send_digits htsp_dial
*Apr 23 17:04:36.943: htsp_process_event: [1/1:0(1), EM_WAIT_DIAL_DONE,
E_DSP_DIALING_DONE]em_offhook_digit_done
/* Finished sending digits */
*Apr 23 17:04:36.943: htsp_timer_stop2 htsp_progress
*Apr 23 17:04:36.943: htsp_timer2 - 850 msec
EM_WAIT_FOR_ANSWER,E_HTSP_VOICE_CUT_THROUGH]
*Apr 23 17:04:36.943: htsp_timer_stop2
*Apr 23 17:04:40.263: htsp_process_event: [1/1:0(1),EM_WAIT_FOR_ANSWER,
E_DSP_SIG_1100]em_wait_answer_offhook
/* Router sees off-hook
(answer supervision) */
54
Debugging CAS
*Apr 23 17:04:43.571: htsp_digit_ready: digit = 31
EM_CONNECT, E_VTSP_DIGIT]
/* User dials dtmf 1234
once call is connected.
Router received 1234 from
T1 interface.*/
EM_CONNECT, E_HTSP_RELEASE_REQ]em_conn_release
em_onhook(0)vnm_dsp_set_sig_state:
/* Router disconnects call.
[recEive and transMit1/1:0(1)] set signal state = 0x0
Duration is approx 121 sec*/
55
Debugging CAS

EM_WAIT_ONHOOK,
/* Remote disconnects call */
E_DSP_SIG_0000]htsp_report_onhook_sig
EM_WAIT_ONHOOK, E_HTSP_EVENT_TIMER]em_wait_timeout
EM_CLR_PENDING, E_HTSP_EVENT_TIMER]em_clr_timeout
/* Router rechecks the
EM state of remote after
*Apr 23 17:06:42.511: htsp_process_event: [1/1:0(1), EM_PARK, timer pops. This ensures
E_DSP_SIG_0000]em_park_onhook
it was a disconnect and
not a hookflash. */
htsp_report_onhook_sig
56
Telephony Lab
Voice Quality
57
Lab Topology
FXS
Ext. 1234
Router A
T1
E&M
T1
E&M
Router B
FXS
Ext. 4321
58
Lab Exercises
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Configure the T1 with AMI/SF. Change 1 side to B8ZS and look at the show
controller output. Next change 1 side to ESF and view the show controller output.
Configure both sides for ESF/B8ZS.
Make a loopback plug and plug into the T1.
Hook an analyzer into the T1, loopback the controller to the analyzer and bert the
controller.
Configure Router A with extension 1234 and Router B with extension 4321.
Configure 6 timeslots all with different signaling types between the 2 Routers.
Configure dial-peers such that Router A can call Router B and vice versa using
any of the 6 channels between the 2 routers. (i.e. use an access code)
Debug vpm signal and capture debugs to a file. Notate all signaling state
changes.
Debug vtsp session to see out-pulsed digits.
10.
Configure the router so you can place hairpin calls to a second phone off Router A
(extension 1235).
11.
12.
On the analyzer, watch the signaling bits for idle and active channels.
Listen to the audio for an active call with the analyzer.
13.
14.
Change the CAS T1 to a PRI.

Debug isdn q931 to view call setup and teardown messaging.
59
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Introduction to Telephony

Michael Whitley (mwhitley)

2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

Assumption is that human speech information is

Analog Audio Source

8 kHz (8,000 Samples/Sec)

Pulse Code Modulation

Non-Linear vs. Linear Encoding

Non- Linear Encoding

Companding (a-law vs. -law)

Maximum level for a-law is +3.14 dBM0

2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

8 bits * 24 timeslots = 192 bits + F bit=193bits/frame

2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

The incoming DS0 is encoded and ready for

DS0s are bundled into DS1s (T1s) for delivery across

AMI - Alternate Mark Inversion

B8ZS - Bipolar 8-Zero Substitution

DS-1 Frame Format

12 frames make up a Super Frame

2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

001011 - Terminal Pattern

DS-1 SF/ESF Frame Format

SF: terminal pattern of alternating 0/1s in every

Receive states are:

For Framing SF & Linecode AMI use:

AMI doesnt support Clear Channel 64K DS0.

When debugging layer 1 T1 problems, use a loopback test to verify router

DS-1 Signaling Types

In-band refers to signaling which uses the same frequency

Out-of-band uses a different frequency range that voice call - ie

In-channel refers to signaling information using the same

Out-of-channel uses a different channel than the voice/data

Channel Associated Signaling (CAS) is a form of in-channel,

Common Channel Signaling (CCS) is a form of out-of-channel,

Channel Associated Signaling (CAS)

DS-0 #24 always provides signaling

2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

ISDN Protocol Architecture

Separate channels for signaling

For Data Flow

kbps total speed

2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

64K*24 + 8K (framing bits)

=1.544 Mbps (T1)

2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

Physical Layer (1)

2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

HDLC and LAPB (X.25).

2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

Global ISDN Switchtype = primary-ni

ACTIVE indicates that the

dsl 0, interface ISDN Switchtype = primary-ni

ISDN Serial2/0:23 interface

I.430 (BRI)I.431 (PRI)

Indicates the ISDN interface and Telco switch are have

CCB:callid=1F, sapi=0, ces=0, B-chan=23, calltype=VOICE