Chapter 2 Photons-particlelike properties of radiation

2.1 Introduction

radiation with matter: the photoelectric effect, the Compton effect, and
pair production.

scattering or absorption of radiation with matter : bremsstrahlung (X ray) and

pair annihilation.

2.2 The photoelectric effect

The

ejection of electrons from a surface

by the action of light on the matter.

Hertz: ultraviolet light enhances discharge

Lenard: ultraviolet light causes electron

emitted from cathode surface

solar cell: thermal energy is converted into

electrical energy

Chapter 2 Photons-particlelike properties of radiation

Results:

saturation
cut-off

stopping potentialV0 : at which the photoelectric current drops

to zero, its value is independent of radiation intensity.

the kinetic energy of the fastest ejected photoelectron is K max eV0

Three major features cannot be explained by classical wave theoty:

(1) classical theory: light intensity increasing, K max increasing

experiment: K max eV0 is independent of the light intensity

Chapter 2 Photons-particlelike properties of radiation

(2) classical theory: for any frequency, the light can always eject the
photoelectron by gradually increasing its intensity

experiment: the cut-off frequency exists

(3) classical theory: a time lag can be measured
experiment: no detectable time lag has ever been measured

2.3 Einsteins quantum theory of the photoelectric effect

Einsteins photon hypothesis:

photon: a energy bundle, velocity is C, and with energy E h

the kinetic energy of emitted electrons is K h W K max h W0

W : the work needed to remove an electron
W0 : surface work function

Chapter 2 Photons-particlelike properties of radiation

the prediction of Einsteins photon hypothesis:

(1) K max is independent of the intensity of illumination
(2) the existence of a cut-off frequency h 0 W0
(3) the absence of time lag
(4) stopping potential V 0:
eV0 h W0 V0 h / e W0 / e V0

Chapter 2 Photons-particlelike properties of radiation

2.4 the Compton effect

incident photon : E h E / h
c / hc / E
scatteredphoton : E ' h ' ' E ' / h
' c / ' hc / E '
E ' E ' ' 0

energy transfer causes wave length shift

Chapter 2 Photons-particlelike properties of radiation

incident photon energy E h
relativistic energy E m0 c 2 / 1 v 2 / c 2
photon : v c and E h is finite
rest mass m0 0

m0 0

photon : E c p ( m0c ) E cp
2

2 2

p E / c h / c h /
momentumconservation :
p0 p1 cos p cos - - - - - - - - - (1)
p1 sin p sin

- - - - - - - - - -(2)

from (1) ( p0 p1 cos ) 2 p 2 cos 2 - - - - - (3)

from (2) p12 sin2 p 2 sin2

- - - - - (4)

(3) (4) p02 p12 2 p0 p1 cos p 2 - - - - - (5)

total relativistic energyconservation :
E 0 m0 c 2 E1 K m0 c 2 E 0 E1 K p0 c p1c K c( p0 p1 ) K - - - (6)

Chapter 2 Photons-particlelike properties of radiation

for electron: E 2 c 2 p 2 ( m0 c 2 ) 2
( K m0 c 2 ) 2 c 2 p 2 ( m0 c 2 ) 2
K 2 2 Km0 c 2 c 2 p 2
K 2 / c 2 2 Km 0 p 2 - - - - - (7) put (6) into (7) (5)
c 2 ( p0 p1 ) 2 / c 2 2m0 c( p0 p1 ) p02 p12 2 p0 p1 cos
2 p0 p1 2m0 c( p0 p1 ) 2 p0 p1 cos
m0 c( p0 p1 ) p0 p1 (1 cos )
1 / p1 1 / p0 (1 cos ) /(m0 c ) h / p1 h / p0 h(1 cos ) /(m0 c )
1 0 C (1 cos )

C h / m0 c 2.43 10

12

cm 0.0243 A Compton wavelength

Conclusions:

Wave length shift depends only on the scattering angle , and not
on the initial wavelength

The first peak with unchanged wavelength is due to E photon E e ,bounding

The duality of EM radiation: wave ( E h ) and particle ( p h / )

Chapter 2 Photons-particlelike properties of radiation

2.6 Photons and X-ray production
X-ray tube

The deceleration of electrons, brought to rest in the target material,

result in the emission of a continuous spectrum of electromagnetic
radiation.
For a

given electron energy, there exists a well-defined minimum

wave-length min , and its value depends on applied potential V, being
the same for all target material.

Chapter 2 Photons-particlelike properties of radiation

bremsstrahlung process:
brems (deceleration) + strahlung (radiation)
h K K ' hc / K K '
K ' 0 min
K eV hc / min
for

h 0 for finite K , min 0 classical theory

measurement of V , min and c gives the ratio h / e Vmin / c

Comparisons:
photoelectric effect: a photon is absorbed, its energy and momentum is

transferred into electron and recoiling nucleus.

bremsstrahlung: a photon is created, its energy and momentum coming
from a colliding electron and nucleus.

Chapter 2 Photons-particlelike properties of radiation

2.7 Pair production and pair annihilation
pair production
e electron mass is the same, but charge and
e position magnetic moment are opposite
h E E ( m0c 2 K ) ( m0c 2 K ) K K 2m0c 2
o

The thresholdenergyis 2m0c 1.02 MeV ( 0.012 A)

2

Ex: Pair production cannot occur in empty space ?

p , E

if E E and p p

h 2 E - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)

h / c 2 E 2 / c 2 m02 c 2 cos - -(2)

h 2 E 1 m c / E cos h 1 m c / E cos
2
0

2
0

since E m0 c 2 and cos 1 the equation fail

p , E

Chapter 2 Photons-particlelike properties of radiation

(1) momentum conservation:

p1 p2 0 p1 p2
p1 p2 h 1 / c h 2 / c 1 2

at rest

(2) total relativistic energy conservation:

m0 c 2 m 0 c 2 h h
o

h m0 c 0.51 MeV and h / m0 c 0.024 A

2

Anderson (1933): the first experimental

evidence for the pair production process,
and existence of positrons during an
investigation of cosmic radiation.
bubble-chamber photographer of
electron-position pair formation

Chapter 2 Photons-particlelike properties of radiation

experiment: free electron cannot emit photon with energy h 2m 0 c 2

Why

Diracs theory

positron exists

Diracs relativistic quantum mechanics of electron: E c 2 p 2 m02c 4

Diracs assumption: a vacuum consists of a sea of electrons in

negative energy levels which are normally filled at all points in space.

(1) e ( E ) e ( E ) photon forbidden

(1)

(2) e ( E ) photon e ( E )

(2)

(3)

hole( E ) e ( E )

h 2m0 c 2

hole( E ) (e ) positron( E )
( 3) ( h )min 2m0 c 2

occupied
states

Chapter 2 Photons-particlelike properties of radiation

2.8 Cross sections for photon absorption and scattering
(1) photoelectric effect: absorption
(2) pair production : absorption
(3) Rayleigh scattering (no wavelength shift)
(4) Compton scattering (wavelength shift)

cross sections: describe the probability of absorption or scattering

N PE PE In
N PE : No. of photoelectric absorption
I : photon number
n : No. of atom per unit area in a slab
PE : cross section, its unit is 1/area

Photoelectric effect: h 5 105 eV

Scattering: 5 105 eV h 5 106 eV
6
Pair production: 5 10 eV h

The scattering, photoelectric, pair

production, and total cross section
for lead

Chapter 2 Photons-particlelike properties of radiation

Ex: Evaluate, in terms of the total cross section, the
attenuation of a parallel beam X-rays in passing
through a thick slab of matter.
I ( x ) : photon number after penetrating a slab at position x
I ( x dx ) I ( x ) I ( x ) I ( x ) dx
dI ( x ) I ( x dx ) I ( x ) I ( x )dx
dI ( x ) / I ( x ) dx

dI ( x ) / I ( x ) dx
t

ln( I ( t ) / I (0)) t I ( t ) / I (0) e t

I ( t ) I (0)e t

: attenuation coefficient
1 / : attenuation length

As increases, absorption or scattering of

photons in the matter is more rapid, and its value
depends on photon energy h .

a beam of photons
passing through a slab