BASAL

GANGLIA

BASAL GANGLIA
The basal ganglia (or basal nuclei) are a group of nuclei of
varied origin (mostly telencephalic embryonal origin, with
some diencephalic andmesencephalic elements) in
the brains of vertebrates that act as a cohesive functional
unit.
They are situated at the base of the forebrain and are
strongly connected with the cerebral cortex, thalamus and
other brain areas.
The basal ganglia are associated with a variety of functions,
including voluntary motor control,
procedural learning relating to routine behaviors or
"habits" such as bruxism, eye movements, and
cognitive, emotional functions.

PARTS OF BASAL GANGLIA

CORPUS STRIATUM:
Caudate nucleus
Lentiform nucleus:
Globus pallidus
Putamen
SUBSTANTIA NIGRA
SUBTHALAMIC NUCLEI

Where are the basal

ganglia?

CORPUS STRIATUM
Corpus Striatum
Concerned with somatic motor fxn
Neostriatum
Caudate nucleus
Putamen

Paleostriatum
Globus Pallidus

CORPUS STRIATUM

The main components of the basal ganglia are the striatum (also called
neostriatum) composed of caudate and putamen, globus pallidus .
The term "striatum" comes from the observation that this structure has a striped
appearance when sliced in certain directions, arising from numerous large and
small bundles of nerve fibers (white matter) that traverse it .
The largest component, the striatum, receives input from many brain areas but
sends output only to other components of the basal ganglia.
The great majority of neurons (about 96%) are of a type called "medium spiny
neurons".
These are GABAergic cells (meaning that they inhibit their targets) with small cell
bodies and dendrites densely covered withdendritic spines, which receive synaptic
input primarily from the cortex and thalamus.
There are also medium spiny neurons.
The next most numerous type (around 2%) are a class of
large cholinergicinterneurons with smooth dendrites.
There are also several other types of interneurons making up smaller fractions of
the neural population.

CAUDATE NUCLEUS
1. Caudate nucleus
C-shaped cellular mass
related throughout its extent to the lateral ventricle
Suprathalamic
HEAD
Rostral to thalamus

BODY
arches along the dorsolateral border of the thalamus
Lateral to fibers of stria terminalis

TAIL
Evident caudal to the thalamus
Lies in the roof of the inferior horn of lat. vent.
Terminal part
comes into a relathionship with central nucleus of ANC

CAUDATE NUCLEUS

CAUDATE NUCLEUS
The caudate begins just behind the frontal
lobe and curves back towards the occipital
lobe. It sends its messages to the frontal lobe
(especially the orbital cortex, just above the
eyes), and appears to be responsible for
informing us that something is not right and
we should do something about it.

GLOBUS PALLIDUS
3. Globus Pallidus
Forms smaller and inner part of lentiform nucleus
Medial to putamen
Dorsomedial margin
borders the posterior limb of internal capsule

Thin lateral medullary lamina, lies on

External surface of pallidum
Pallidums junction with putamen

Medial medullary lamina

Divides GP into medial and lateral segments

GLOBUS PALLIDUS
The globus pallidus is located just inside the putamen, with
an outer part and an inner part.
The globus pallidus can also be divided into two parts:
the globus pallidus externa (GPe) and the globus pallidus
interna (GPi).
Both receive input from the caudate and putamen, and
both are in communication with the subthalamic nucleus.
It is the GPi, however, that sends the major inhibitory
output from the basal ganglia back to thalamus.
The GPi also sends a few projections to an area of midbrain
(the PPPA), presumably to assist in postural control.

PUTAMEN
2. Putamen
Largest and most lateral portion of striatum
Lies bet ext. capsule and lat. medullary lamina of
the globus pallidus
Medial to the insular cortex
Separated from insula by:
External capsule
Claustrum
Extreme capsule

PUTAMEN
The putamen lies just under and behind the front of
the caudate. It appears to be involved in coordinating
automatic behaviors such as riding a bike, driving a car,
or working on an assembly line. Problems with the
putamen may account for the symptoms of Tourette's
syndrome.
The caudate and putamen receive most of the input
from cerebral cortex; in this sense they are
the doorway into the basal ganglia.
The caudate and putamen are reciprocally
interconnected with the substantia nigra, but send
most of their output to the globus pallidus

SUBSTANTIA NIGRA
Another nucleus of the basal ganglia is the substantia nigra ("black
substance").
It is a mesencephalic grey matter portion.
Located in the upper portions of the midbrain, below the thalamus, it gets
its color from neuromelanin, a close relative of the skin pigment. The
substantia nigra can be divided into two parts: the substantia nigra pars
compacta (SNpc) and the substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNpr).
The SNpc receives input from the caudate and putamen, and sends
information right back.
The SNpr also receives input from the caudate and putamen, but sends it
outside the basal ganglia to control head and eye movements.
The SNpc is the more famous of the two, as it produces dopamine, which
is critical for normal movement.
The SNpc degenerates in Parkinson's disease, but the condition can be
treated by giving oral dopamine precursors.

SUBTHALAMIC NUCLEUS
The subthalamic nucleus is a diencephalic gray
matter portion of the basal ganglia, and the
only portion of the ganglia that actually
produces an
"excitatory," glutamate neurotransmitter.
The role of the subthalamic nucleus (STN) is
to stimulate the SNr-GPi complex and it is part
of the "indirect pathway".

This cartoon represents a horizontal slice

through the brain at the level of the thalamus.
It is a midline view from above, with anterior at
the top of the screen and posterior at
the bottom of the screen

BASAL GANGLIA DISEASES

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Athymhormic syndrome (PAP syndrome)
Athetosis
Cerebral palsy:
Chorea
Dystonia
Fahr's disease
Foreign accent syndrome (FAS)
Huntington's disease
Lesch-Nyhan syndrome
Major Depressive Disorder [17]
Obsessive-compulsive disorder[18][19]
Other anxiety disorders [19]
Parkinson's disease
PANDAS
Sydenham's chorea
Tourette's disorder
Tardive dyskinesia,
Stuttering[20]
Spasmodic dysphonia
Wilson's disease
Blepharospasm

PARKINSONS DISEASE

Parkinson's is characterized by tremor (shaking), rigid muscles, difficulty making

quick, smooth movements, and difficulty standing and walking. Many people also
develop depression and anxiety and, later in life, problems with memory loss and
dementia.
It usually develops late in life, but it can occur in younger people. One well-known
case is the actor Michael J. Fox. It is very difficult for both the patient and his or
her family.
Parkinson's is originates in the death of cells in the substantia nigra and the loss of
dopamine and melanin produced by those cells. It progresses to other parts of the
basal ganglia and to the nerves that control the muscles, involving other
neurotransmitters. Possible causes or contributing factors include environmental
toxins, head trauma, and genetics.

There are treatments available that slow the course of Parkinson's and alleviate
the symptoms. Most involve replacing or mimicking the lost dopamine and other
neurotransmitters. Unfortunately, the disease slowly progresses to where the
treatments only work for a few hours at a time. Parkinson's does not directly
cause death and many patients live long lives with it.

HUNTINGTONS DISEASE
Huntington's is characterized by loss of
memory and odd jerking movements
called chorea ("dance"). It is a hereditary
disease (with a dominant gene) involving cell
death in the caudate nucleus. It usually starts
in a person's 30s, but may start at any age.

CEREBRAL PALSY
People with cerebral palsy have various motor problems,
such as spasticity, paralysis, and even seizures. Spasticity is
where some muscles are constantly tight and so interfere
with normal movement. This is the reason for the unusual
hand and arm positions most of us have seen in people
with cerebral palsy.
It is apparently due to brain damage, usually sometime
before birth. Causes may include fetal infection,
environmental toxins, or lack of oxygen.

Although cerebral palsy tends to remain relatively stable

throughout life, there is no cure and is very difficult to deal
with for both the person and his or her family.

ATHYMHORMIC(PAP) SYNDROME

PAP is characterized by an unusual lack of motivation. A dramatic case was that of

Mr. M, who, while drowning, simply failed to try to save himself, even though a
good swimmer.
Damage to the caudate nucleus means that nothing carries any emotional
significance anymore. Drowning? Don't be concerned. People with PAP also
ignore the usual social and moral motivations we all take for granted. They don't
quite "get" that their lack of action could have significant consequences.
Without the motivating influence of the basal ganglia, the frontal lobe simply stops
planning for the future. Oddly, they can still respond to external motivation, such
as a loved one's request or an authority's command.

Conveying emotion through facial expression requires

initiation of motor behavior. Without these behaviors, the
person may have a masked facial expression. Be aware,
however, that emotional capacity is undiminished even if the
emotion cant be expressed!

THANK YOU