Water

By S. Harish

WATERS IMPORTANCE, AVAILABILITY, AND

RENEWAL

Water keeps us alive, moderates climate,

sculpts the land, removes and dilutes wastes

and pollutants, and moves continually
through the hydrologic cycle.

Only about 0.02% of the earths water supply

is available to us as liquid freshwater.

Continent
Asi
a

Percent of world's water

resources
and population
36
%

Africa

Europe

North and
Central
America
South America
and Caribbean

Oceania

60.5
%

14%
8
%11.3%

7.3
%
6.4
%
5
%
0.5%

15
%
26
%

 Water in the United

States

Average

precipitation (top)
in relation to
water-deficit
regions and their
proximity to
metropolitan areas
(bottom).

TOO LITTLE FRESHWATER

About 41% of the worlds population lives

in river basins that do not have enough
freshwater.

Many parts of the world are experiencing :

Rivers running dry.

Lakes and seas shrinking.
Falling water tables from over pumped
aquifers.

Stress on the Worlds River

Basins

Comparison of the amount of water available

with the amount used by humans.

TOO LITTLE FRESHWATER

Cities are outbidding farmers for water

supplies from rivers and aquifers.

Countries are importing grain as a way to
reduce their water use.
More crops are being used to produce
biofuels.
Our water options are:
Get more water from aquifers and rivers,
desalinate ocean water, waste less water.

 WITHDRAWING GROUNDWATER TO INCREASE

SUPPLIES

Most aquifers are renewable resources unless

water is removed faster than it is replenished
or if they are contaminated.

Groundwater depletion is a growing problem

mostly from irrigation.

At least one-fourth of the farms in India are
being irrigated from over pumped aquifers.

Other Effects of Groundwater Overpumping

Groundwater over

pumping can cause

land to sink, and
contaminate
freshwater aquifers
near coastal areas
with saltwater.

Other Effects of Groundwater

Overpumping
Sinkholes form

when the roof of

an underground
cavern collapses
after being
drained of
groundwater.

USING DAMS AND RESERVOIRS TO

SUPPLY MORE WATER

Large dams and reservoirs can produce

cheap electricity, reduce downstream
flooding, and provide year-round water
for irrigating cropland, but they also
displace people and disrupt aquatic
systems.

The Water Cycle

By S. Harish

Water never leaves the Earth. It is

constantly being cycled through the
atmosphere, ocean, and land. This
process, known as the water cycle, is
driven by energy from the sun. The water
cycle is crucial to the existence of life on
our planet.

The Water Cycle

During part of the water cycle, the sun

heats up liquid water and changes it to
a gas by the process of evaporation.
Water that evaporates from Earths
oceans, lakes, rivers, and moist soil
rises up into the atmosphere.

The process of evaporation from plants

is called transpiration. (In other words,
its like plants sweating.)

As water (in the form of gas) rises higher in

the atmosphere, it starts to cool and become
a liquid again. This process is called
condensation. When a large amount of
water vapor condenses, it results in the
formation of clouds.

When the water in the clouds gets too

heavy, the water falls back to the
earth. This is called precipitation.

When rain falls on the land, some of the

water is absorbed into the ground forming
pockets of water called groundwater. Most
groundwater eventually returns to the
ocean. Other precipitation runs directly into
streams or rivers. Water that collects in
rivers, streams, and oceans is called runoff.

The Water Conservation

By S. Harish

Fun Facts about Water

Human body is 66% water
A living tree is about 75% water
Almost 80% of the earths surface is
covered with water

Water Conservation
If only 1% of the water on earth is

drinkable and the population

continues to grow, we have to reduce
use or find ways to use the nondrinkable water. Water is relatively
cheap, so we tend to waste it.

Average Rainfall
7 inches in Phoenix, AZ
15 inches in Denver, CO
22 inches in Honolulu, HI
36 inches in Seattle, WA
40 inches in New York City
50 inches in Atlanta, GA
67 inches in Mobile, AL
153 inches Ketchikan, AK

Residential Indoor Uses of Water

Leaks 13.7%

Dishwasher 1.4%

Other 2.3%

Toilet 26.8%

Bath 1.7%

Faucet 15.7%

Shower 16.7%

Clothes Washer 21.7%

How Much Water Do

Georgians Use?
Gallons Per Person Per Day
Winter

Summer

Ranking

Comment

50 to 65

65 to 80

Efficient

70

91

Average

Exceeds
70

Exceeds
100

Inefficient

GOOD
Water Saver
OK
Average
POOR
Water Waster

Source: Metropolitan North Georgia Water Planning District Water Supply & Water
Conservation Plan, Georgia Department of Natural Resources Water Conservation Plan
Guidelines (Draft)

How much water do you

use?
Estimate the number of times you do

the following on a day you are at home.

Shower
Flush the toilet
Brush your teeth
Shave
Do a load of laundry
Run the dishwasher

Estimated daily water use

1 x Shower

25 gallons = 2.5 gpm x 10 minutes

4 x Flush

32 gallons = 8 gallons x 4 flushes

[2 x Brush teeth] + [1 x Shave]

15 gallons = 3 gpm x 5 minutes

1 x laundry
41 gallons

1 x dishwasher
15 gallons

TOTAL = 128 Gallons

5 Easy Water Saving Tips

Wash laundry & dishes with full loads

Always turn off running water
Take shorter showers
Eliminate any and all leaks
Reduce the flow of toilets & showerheads

Wash a full load of laundry

Average water use
Older washing machine 41 gallons
New washing machine < 28 gallons

For small loads of laundry, adjust the

water setting to a lower level.

Wash a full load of dishes

Average water use:

Older machine
Newer machine

8 to 15 gallons
4 to 7 gallons

Dont pre-rinse, just scrape the dishes

Just a few dishes?
Wash in the sink or a dish pan
Rinse with sprayer or in a pan

Always turn off running water

Average faucet water flow:
Older 2 to 3 gallons per minute
New 1.5 gallons per minute

Turn the water on and off when:

Brushing your teeth
Shaving

Keep drinking water in refrigerator

Defrost food in the refrigerator
Compost instead of using the garbage disposal

Always save clean running water

Collect water in buckets while waiting
for shower water to warm
Use it for:
Watering indoor plants
Mopping the floor
Household chores

Gray water
Before reusing water or using gray

water from bathtubs, showers, sinks

and washing machines, contact your
local health department.
Several communities do not allow
the use of gray water.

Take shorter showers

Reduce your 10 minute shower to 5
minutes

Save up to 80 gallons of water

Take a navy shower

Turn the water off while you lather up and

shampoo
Install a toggle switch to maintain a consistent
temperature

Lower your bath water

Follow the 5-inch rule

Eliminate any and all leaks

LEAKY FAUCET
One drop per second = 9.5 gallons a day

LEAKY TOILET
15 gallons of water a day lost

FINDING TOILET LEAKS

Remove the toilet tank cover and put in 5 to 10
drops of food coloring.
Wait 30 minutes.
If any color leaks into toilet bowl then you have a
leak and you should fix it immediately.

Reduce the flow of toilets

Almost half of the water used in a home is for
toilets & showers.
Replace old toilets with new models using 1.5
gallons per flush (gpf) or less

Toilets made before 1978 use 4 to 8 gpf

1978 to 1993 toilets use 3.5 gpf
Savings: 2 to 6.5 gpf

Reduce the water used per flush

Place a 2 liter bottle filled with pebbles or sand in
the toilet tank. Saves about gpf

Reduce the flow of showerheads

Measure water flow

Hold a bucket under the showerhead.

Turn the water on full blast for thirty seconds.
Measure the number of cups of water in the
bucket and multiply by two to get the number of
gallons per minute.

Replace showerhead if over 2.5 gallons per

minute

Older showerheads use 3 to 10 gallons per minute

Long-Term Water Conservation

Toilet
Install a low-flow or high efficiency
model that uses 1.5 to 1.3 gallons per
flush
When shopping, look for the Water
Sense label

Shower

Install a 1.5 gallons per minute

showerhead

Long-Term Water Conservation

Clothes Washer
Replace your old washer with a high
efficiency machine that uses less than
28 gallons per load

Dishwasher

Replace your old machine with a high

efficiency model that uses 4 to 7 gallons
per load

Look for the Energy Star label

Long-Term Water Conservation

Hot Water

Insulate water pipes to get hot water

faster and avoid wasting water while it
reaches the correct temperature
Install an on-demand or tankless hot
water heater

Summary
Water Conservation is about more
than buying new gadgets..
Its about changing your habits.

5 Easy Water Saving Tips

Wash laundry & dishes with full loads

Always turn off running water
Take shorter showers
Eliminate any and all leaks
Reduce the flow of toilets & showerheads

WATER POLLUTION

S.Harish

OUTLINE
Introduction

Water subject to pollution

Pollutants
Domestic Policy
International Policy

International watercourse
Pollution
Marine
Development of regime

Land-based Sources
Dumping
Pollution from Ships
Liability
Conclusion

Introduction

Two types of water subject to

pollution
Surface water rivers, lakes, oceans
Uses: drinking, recreational [fishing,
boating, swimming], irrigation.

Groundwater- occurs beneath a water

table in
soils or rocks; subject to
pollution from toxic chemicals.
Uses: drinking, irrigation, etc

 Contamination
Nature of sources of contamination [point and nonpoint]

Point source: discharge into surface waters at a

specific location through a pipe, outfall or
ditch.]

 Non-point: Indirect or

diffuse effect on water

[N/B. more difficult to
control]
e.g. agricultural
activities, urban
run-off

 Sources of contamination
For Groundwater
-polluting substances leach into a water
saturated region [e.g. toxic chemicals]
-Mainly due to migration of pollutants

from
sites with high concentrations of
chemicals [e.g. industrial waste sites and
farms]

 Sources of contamination
For Surface water
Rivers and lakes
Point source: -sewage [municipal or private]

- industrial wastes
Non-point source:
Agricultural activity [e.g. pesticides,
fertilizers].
urban and highway water runoff.
Ocean [oil spills, dumping, land-based sources]
Oil spills during transportation, either
accidentally or intentionally
Dumping sewage, chemical disposal,
radioactive materials
Land-based sources migration of chemical
substances.

Types of Pollutants [Fund and accumulating

pollutants]
I) Fund pollutants
-Environment has some assimilative capacity. If
capacity for absorption higher than rate of injection,
they may not accumulate.
a) Degradable
degrades/break into component parts within water.
Are normally organic residuals attacked and broken
down by bacteria and become less harmful.
b) Thermal pollution
caused by injection of heat into watercourses
by an industrial plant or electric utility using
surface water as a coolant, and returning the
heated water to the watercourse.

c) Plant nutrients [nitrogen and phosphorus]

[eutrophic/ eutrophication =excess supply of nutrients
in a lake]
stimulate growth of aquatic plant life, e.g. algae and
water weeds.
can produce odor if in excess.

d) Infectious organisms [e.g. bacteria and viruses]

carried into both ground and surface water by
domestic and animal wastes; industrial wastes e.g.
tanning and meat packaging
Are live organisms that may thrive and multiply in
water or decline.

II) Accumulating/stock pollutants

Environment has little or no absorptive capacity [i.e.

no natural process removes/transforms them].
accumulate over time.

Examples: non-biodegradable bottles, heavy metals

[e.g. lead, mercury]; persistent synthetic chemicals
[e.g. dioxin, and PCBs polychlorinated biphenyls]
not easily broken down; so can remain in water
for long.
also accumulate in the food chain.

Water Pollution Control Policy: Domestic

Dimension [U.S.]

Water Pollution Control Act, 1956

i) Federal financial support for construction of waste

treatment plants
focused on a control strategy based on subsidizing
construction of waste treatment plants as a
particular control activity.
Municipalities would receive grant of upto 55% for
construction of waste treatment plants.

ii) Enforcement conference mechanism

sought to effect direct federal regulation of waste
discharges
Federal authority could call for a conference of
interstate water pollution problem.

 Clean Water Act, 1972

Two goals
elimination of discharge of pollutants into
navigable waters by 1985
achieve water quality for fishing and recreation
[swimming].
New procedures for implementing the law introduced
permits for all dischargers [qualification based on
meeting certain technology-based effluent
standards]. especially sewage treatment plants
and factories.
Raised ceiling of subsidizing municipal waste
treatment plants to 75%

 Safe Drinking Water Act, 1974, amended 1986

Improvement on 1972 Act to include drinking water.
EPA regulations set maximum levels for pollutants
for community water systems.
All community water systems must prepare and
distribute annual reports about the water they
provide, including information on detected
contaminants, possible health effects, and the
water's source.

Domestic policy on international waters:

Ocean
I) Oil spills covered under the Clean Water Act:
prohibits discharges of harmful quantities of oil into
navigable waters
industry assume responsibility for any damage
[clean up; compensation for environmental
restoration.

II) Dumping
Marine Protection Research and Sanctuaries Act,
1972.
address discharges of waste

Domestic Policy on Non-Point sources

Unlike point source, is largely state

responsibility

Federal grants for state-initiated plans for waste

treatment management.
Federal programs for aiding control of non-point
sources
e.g. Conservation Reserve Program
aimed at removing 40-45 million acres of
erodible land from cultivation.

 rivers, lakes, or groundwater sources shared by two or

International
Watercourses
more states.

Geographical problem: how much of the watercourse is

to be included?
i) portion that crosses or defines a boundary.
Problem: impedes efficient environmental management
of transboundary waters . entire
ii) watershed or river basin [basin approach]
associated lakes, tributaries, groundwater systems,
and connecting waterways wherever they are located.
Problem:
limitations on use of a substantial portion of a
countrys water system and its associated catchment
areas
requirements to provide an environmental good on
watercourse states for themselves as well as others
[neighbors].

Pollution
permissible
uses.
Greater tolerance of polluting uses?

Few modern treaties endorse an absolute prohibition

of pollution. Modern trend require states to regulate
and control river pollution, prohibiting only certain
forms of pollutant discharges.
State practice, however, points to prohibition of certain
toxic discharges.

 watercourse states prevent, reduce, and control

1997
UN of
Watercourses
pollution
a watercourse Convention
causing significant harm to
other states.
Not absolute prohibition, but means states act with
due diligence.
Thus, pollution permissible if,
Insignificant harm,
Significant but unavoidable by exercise of due
diligence.
Significant of above to pollution and environment:
Protection of river environment and its living
resources must compete with other equitable claims.
No claim [e.g. industrial waste disposal vs. fishing]
has priority [although special regard must be
given to vital human needs]

PROTECTION OF MARINE ENVIRONMENT

PROTECTION OF MARINE ENVIRONMENT

Development of regulation of marine pollution was

slower than that of other aspects of the sea [[e.g.

Fisheries 1911 convention on Fur Seals]
Two stages in development
Laissez Faire : London Convention for Prevention
of Pollution of the Sea by Oil.
did not entirely prohibit discharge of oil from
ships at sea. 1954.
Duty to protect environment from Pollution:
UNCLOS phase
1982 United Nations Convention on Law of the Seas
[UNCLOS]
formulated obligation in terms comprehensive of
all sources. [ships, land-based sources, seabed
operations, dumping, and atmospheric pollution]

I) On land-based sources

Unlike pollution from ships and dumping, no

requirement for adherence to any minimum

international standards.
Each state determine what measures to take,
and which substances to act on.

Reason for generality:

balance environmental protection measures
against economic imperatives

International Policy on Dumping

Both London Dumping Convention and UNCLOS initially

sought to control, not prohibit, dumping.
Dumping was permissible unless proven harmful.

Consequent to Rio in 1992 where the precautionary

principle was adopted, dumping is now prohibited

unless there is no alternative, and can be proved to be
harmless to environment [shift in burden of proof]

III) POLLUTION FROM SHIPS

purpose of regulation is minimize the risk and give
coastal states adequate means of protecting
themselves and securing compensation
MARPOL, 1973/ amended 1978 ].
Jurisdiction to regulate Pollution
Flag state the state in which the ship is registered
or whose flag it is entitled to fly.
cooperation of coastal states, port states and flag
states in the system of certification, inspection and
reporting .

Responsibility and Liability for Damage

Two Conventions
1969 Convention on civil Liability for Oil
Pollution Damage; updated by 1992.
1996 Convention on Liability and Compensation for
the Carriage of Hazardous and Noxious Substances by
sea.
State responsibility for damage

Civil liability

Who claims liability cost

s: e.g. fisherfolks and hoteliers.
Environmental Damage
Compensation for impairment of the
environment; limited to costs of reasonable
measures of reinstatement.

Conclusion
India has taken several Water

Pollution measures which has been

initiated by the Public Welfare
Association and awaits for the
Support from the general public
bodies