In the Name of Allah, the Most

Merciful, the Most Kind.

Keep in Mind

NO CELL PHONE

SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION
Chapter # 2

AFTER COMPLETING THIS CHAPTER

The Hallmarks of Scientific Research

Some obstacles to conducting scientific research in the
management area

The building blocks of science in research

The hypothetico deductive method

Other types of research

Definition of Scientific
Research

Scientific Research focusing on solving problems and

pursues a step by step logical, organized and rigorous
method to identify the problems, gather data, analyze

them and draw valid conclusions there from.

Why Scientific Research?

This research is not based on hunches (Guess), experience and
intuition.

It is purposive and rigorous (Exact/precise/accurate/careful).

Enables all those who are interested in researching and
knowing about the same or similar issues to come up with
comparable findings when data are analyzed.

Findings are accurate and confident.

Apply solutions to similar problems.

Why Scientific Research? (Cont)

Highlights the most critical factors at the work place that need
specific attention to solve or minimize problems.

Scientific Investigation and Managerial Decision Making are

integral part of effective problem solving.

It can be applied to both basic and applied research.

The Hallmarks of Scientific

Research

The hallmarks or main distinguishing characteristics

of
scientific research are:

1.Purposiveness
2.Rigor
3.Testability
4.Replicability
5.Precision and Confidence
6.Objectivity
7.Generalizability

The Hallmarks of Scientific

Research

1.PURPOSIVENESS
o It has to start with a definite aim or purpose.
EXAMPLE
THE FOCUS IS ON INCREASING EMPLOYEE COMMITMENT.

o Increase employee commitment will translate into less turnover, less

absenteeism and increased performance levels.

The Hallmarks of Scientific

Research

2. RIGOR
RIGOR ADDS CAREFULNESS, SCRUPULOUSNESS (THOROUGHNESS) AND THE

DEGREE OF EXACTITUDE (ACCURACY) IN RESEARCH.

A GOOD THEORETICAL BASE AND SOUND METHODOLOGICAL DESIGN WOULD

ADD RIGOR TO THE PURPOSIVE STUDY.

EXAMPLE:
A Manager Asks 10-12 Employees How To Increase The Level Of Commitment. If Solely On The Basis
Of Their Responses The Manager Reaches Several Conclusions On How Employee Commitment Can
Be Increases, The Whole Approach To The Investigation Would Be Unscientific. It Would Lack Rigor

The Hallmarks of Scientific

Research
1.BASED ON FEW EMPLOYEES (SAMPLE IS VERY SMALL)
2.BIAS AND INCORRECTNESS
3.THERE MIGHT BE OTHER INFLUENCES ON COMMITMENT WHICH ARE IGNORED

AND ARE IMPORTANT FOR A RESEARCHER TO KNOW.

THUS, RIGOROUS INVOLVES GOOD THEORETICAL BASE AND THOUGHT OUT

METHODOLOGY.
THESE FACTORS ENABLE THE RESEARCHER TO COLLECT THE RIGHT KIND OF

INFORMATION FROM AN APPROPRIATE SAMPLE WITH THE MINIMUM DEGREE OF BIAS AND
FACILITATE SUITABLE ANALYSIS OF THE DATA GATHERED.

The Hallmarks of Scientific

Research

3. TESTABILITY
After random selection manager and researcher develops certain
hypothesis on how manager employee commitment can be
enhanced, then these can be tested by applying certain statistical
tests to the data collected for the purpose.
The researcher might hypothesize that those employees who perceive
greater opportunities for participation in decision making would have a
higher level of commitment.

The Hallmarks of Scientific

Research
4. Replicability
IT MEANS THAT IT CAN BE USED AGAIN IF SIMILAR
CIRCUMSTANCES PREVAILS.
EXAMPLE:
The Study Concludes That Participation In Decision Making Is One Of The Most Important
Factors That Influences The Commitment, We Will Place More Faith And Credence
(Confidence/credibility/belief)

In These Finding And Apply In Similar Situations.

The Hallmarks of Scientific

Research
5. Precision and Confidence
PRECISION REFERS TO THE CLOSENESS OF THE FINDINGS TO REALITY BASED
ON A SAMPLE. IT REFLECTS THE DEGREE
(EXACTNESS)

OF ACCURACY AND EXACTITUDE

OF THE RESULTS OF THE SAMPLE.

EXAMPLE:

If a supervisor estimated the number of production days lost during the year due to
absenteeism are between 30 and 40, as against the actual of 35, the precision of my
estimation more favorably than if he has indicated that the loss of production days
was somewhere between 20 and 50.

The Hallmarks of Scientific

Research

Confidence
Confidence refers to the probability that our estimations are
correct.
That is, it is not merely enough to be precise, but it is also important that we
can confidently claim that 95% of the time our results would be true and
there is only a 5% chance of our being wrong.

This is also known as confidence level.

The Hallmarks of Scientific

Research
6. Objectivity
The conclusions drawn through the interpretation of the results of data
analysis should be objective; that is, they should be based on the facts of the
findings derived from actual data, and not on our subjective or emotional
values.
Example:
If we had a hypothesis that stated that greater participation in decision making will
increase organizational commitment and this was not supported by the results, it

The Hallmarks of Scientific

Research

7. Generalizability
It refers to the scope of applicability of the research findings in one
organization setting to other settings.
Example:
If a researchers findings that participation in decision making enhances
organizational commitment are found to be true in a variety of manufacturing,
industrial and service organizations, and not merely in the particular organization
studied by the researcher, then the generalizability of the findings to other
organizational settings in enhanced. The more generalizable the research, the

The Hallmarks of Scientific

Research
8- Parsimony

(Economy/saving/frugality)

Simplicity in explaining the phenomenon or problems that occur, and

in generating solutions for the problems, is always preferred to

complex research frameworks that consider an unmanageable number
of factors.
For instance, if 2-3 specific variables in the work situation are identified, which when changed
would raise the organizational commitment of the employees by 45%, that would be more

Obstacles to Scientific Research

The Building Blocks of Science in

Research

Deduction and Inductions

Answers to issues can be found either by the
process of deduction or the process of
induction, or by a combination of the two.

Deduction
Deduction is the process by which we arrive at
a reasoned conclusion by logical generalization
of a known fact.

Example: we know that all high performers are

highly proficient in their jobs.
(e.g.) If John is a high performer, we then conclude that he is highly proficient in
his job

Induction
Induction is a process where we observe
certain phenomena and on this basis arrive at
conclusions.

In other words, in induction we

logically establish a general
proposition based on observed facts.

The Hypothetico-Deductive Method

The Hypothetico-Deductive Method

(OLD VERSION- 4th Edition)

The Seven-step process in the Hypothetico-Deductive Method

1.Observation
2.Preliminary Information gathering

3.Theory Formulation
4.Hypothesizing
5.Further scientific data collection

6.Data analysis
7.Deduction

Observation

Observation is the first stage, in which one

senses that certain changes are occurring
or that some new behaviors, attitudes and
feelings are surfacing in ones environment
(i.e., the work place).

Preliminary Information Gathering

It involves the seeking of information in depth, of what is
observed.

This could be done by talking informally to several people in the

work setting or to clients or to other relevant sources, thereby
gathering information on what is happening and why.
(Unstructured interviews)

Then it is followed by structured interviews.

Additionally by doing library research or obtaining information
through other sources, the investigator would identify how such

Theory Formulation
It is an attempt to integrate all the information in a logical manners,
so that the factors responsible for the problem can be on
conceptualized and tested.

The theoretical framework formulated is often guided by

experience and intuition.

In this step the critical variables are identified and examined as

to their contribution or influence in explaining why the problem
occurs and how it can be solved.

Hypothesizing
It is the next logical step after theory formulation.

From the theorized network of associations among the

variables, certain testable hypotheses or educated conjectures
can be generated.

Hypothesis testing is called deductive research. Sometimes,

hypotheses that were not originally formulated do get generated
through the process of induction.

Further Specific Data Collection

After the development of the hypotheses,

data with respect to each variable in the
hypotheses need to be obtained.
Further data are collected to test the
hypotheses that are generated in the
study.

Data Analysis

Data gathered are statistically analyzed to

see if the hypotheses that were generated
have been supported.
Co-relational method will be used to analyze
and determine the relationship of two or
more factors in the hypotheses for example:
stock availability and customer satisfaction.

Deduction

Deduction is the process of

arriving at conclusions by
interpreting the meaning of
results of the data analysis.

Other Types of Research

1.Case Studies
2.Action Research

Case Studies
Case studies involve in depth, contextual analyses
of similar situations in the other organizations,
where the nature and definition of the problem
happen to be the same as experienced in the
current situation.
Case study, as a problem solving technique, is not
often undertaken in organizations because such
studies dealing with problems similar to the one
experienced by a particular organization of a
particular size and in a particular type of setting

Action Research
The researcher begins with a problem that is
already identified and gathers relevant data to
provide a tentative (Unsure/ unconfirmed) problem solution.
This solution is then implemented, with the
knowledge that there may be unintended
(Unintentional/unplanned) consequences following such
implementation.
The effects are then evaluated, defined and
diagnosed and the research continues on an
ongoing basis until the problem is fully resolved.