Gravitational laws

The tell of two

G -- g

In the wonderland of
celestial objects

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

Tycho Brahes recorded

detailed observations of
planetary positions and tried to
make sense of them, using
mathematics
He could not succeed
Kepler studied Tycho Brahes
data & suggested three laws of Johannes Kepler
planetary motion (Known as
(Danish
Kepplers laws)
astronomer)

Keplers 1st Law:

All planets move in elliptic orbits, with the Sun

at one focus of the ellipse.
For understanding
purposed e is
shown large
Real value =
0.017%

e
152
146

29.8km/ sec
Mean radius
= 149 m km

Distance from sun (All distance in million KM

Minimum : 146 million km

Maximum : 152 million km

Mean : 149 million km

Eccentricity (e) = (3/149) X 100 =0.02%

Exact eccentricity = 0.017%

 For normal day to day calculations this small

eccentricity is insignificant & earth orbit can

be considered as round
But for astronomical calculation & events this
eccentricity plays major roll

Eccentricity of other planets

Planet

Orbital Eccentricity (e)

Mercury
Venus
Earth
Mars
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune

0.206
0.007
0.017
0.093
0.048
0.056
0.046
0.010

Keplers 2nd Law:

A line joining any planet to the Sun sweeps

out equal areas in equal times.

Kepler laws
Mean
distance R

Area B covered
in same time intervalt

SUN

Area A
in time t
Planet

Line joining
Sun & planet
Planet move in Elliptical orbits & not round
A line joining planet & sun sweeps equal area in
equal interval of time. Area A = Area B
Square of time required by planet to complete one
revolution around sun ( rotation period T) is proportional
to cube of its mean distance from sun ---- T 2 R 3

Keplers 3rd Law:

The square of the period of any planet is
proportional to the cube of the semi-major
axis of its elliptical orbit.

T2 is proportional to r3

Astronomical unit
of distance

1AU

1AU = 149million Km

Solar System

Let us study this data with graphs

Orbital period
Note uneven
distribution of
planets around sun

This suggest
explosion theory of
planet formation

Mean orbital radius in AU

T2

T2

Straight line graph

as per kepler law
T2 R3

Keplers 3rd Law

R3
Mean orbital radius in AU3

Example: Jupiters Orbit

Jupiters mean orbital radius is rJ = 5.20

AU (Earths orbit is 1 AU).
What is the period TJ of Jupiters orbit
around the Sun?
2

TJ rJ
T Cr so
TE rE
2

rJ
TJ TE
rE

3/2

(5.20 AU)
(1.0 yr)

(1.00 AU)

3/2

11.9 yr

Newton's theory of gravitation

Newtons theory of Gravitation

Experimentally acceleration & force on falling
body are measured

Acceleration & attractive forces on moon were

calculated based on measurements of moon

rotational period & moon to earth distance

Newtons ingenuity
With this Newton made a bold statement that

the type force responsible for Moons rotation

around Earth, Apple falling on earth &
Planets rotating around sun is of same
nature & governed by same laws & called
them as laws of gravitation

Newtons ingenuity
Newton proposed formula with which
he could calculate the measured force
on apple & moon

Newton proposed that

Every object in the universe attracts every other
This force is inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between the objects.
The force is directly proportional to the product of
the masses of the two objects.

F1 on 2

m1m2
F2 on 1 G 2
r
11

Newton derived
keplers law using
law of gravity

G 6.67310 Nm /kg
2

(L3 M-1T-2)

Newton proposed that

Every object in the universe attracts every other
This force is inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between the objects.
The force is directly proportional to the product of
the masses of the two objects.

F1 on 2

m1m2
F2 on 1 G 2
r

Newtons Law of Gravity

F1 on 2

m1m2
F2 on 1 G 2
r

F1 on 2

m1m2
F2 on 1 G 2
r

Why r2 in the formula ??

Gravitational force
If gravitational acceleration (g =9.8m/sec2 )is
considered same at earth surface and for moon
& then calculated value of moons orbital period
will be 11 hr instead of 27.3 days as observed

Alternatively if gmoon is calculated from for moons

rotation period of 27.3 days, then we get
gmoon= 2.72 x 10-3 m/s2
How to explain this
difference in gmoon &
gearth ?

Only possibility is that gravitational force due to

earth is varying with distance from earth( hence
the difference)
Then what is the
relation ?

If we try different possible relation between g &

distance r for apple & moon, like g x r, g2 x r2 ,
g x r2 etc
We observe that

gM x Rm2 = (2.72x10-3 m/s2) (3.84x108 m)2

= 4.01x1014 m3/s2
gE x RE2 = (9.81 m/s2)(6.37x106 m)2
= 3.98x1014 m3/s2

gM
Rm

Thus product of
g x R2 ( 4.01x1014
3/s2) is constant for
m
gE
moon and earth
Re Hence g 1/R2
This is in line with
Newton's law of
gravitation

This results in formula

F1 on 2

m1m2
F2 on 1 G 2
r

Units of G
Force in Newton = G x ( Kg x Kg) /m2 )
Unit of G = N m2 / kg2
11

G 6.67310 Nm /kg
2

= (L3 M-1T-2)

For gravity calculations mass can be considered

as point mass at center for deciding r .
Force due
Net
force
along
center
line
Mass A
to mass A
due to mass A & B
r2
r

These forces
cancel.Hence
net force
r1 Force due
perpendicular
to mass B
to center line
Mass B
is zero
Thus addition of all forces due to mass at different
points gives net force in direction of center line as
if all mass is at center
EARTH

m1

m2
F

F
r

F1 on 2

m1m2
F2 on 1 G 2
r

Q1: Which of these systems has the largest

force of gravitational attraction ?
.a)
.b)
.c)

.d)
.e)

M1 = 4

F1 on 2

Ans to q1

m1m2
F2 on 1 G 2
r

4/16=1/4

1/1=1
1/4

4/16=1/4

16/64=1/4

Ans to q1

4/16=1/4
1/1=1

1/4
4/16=1/4

16/64=1/4

 G is a very small number; this means that the

force of gravity is negligible, unless there is a
very large mass involved (such as the Earth).
Gravitational forces are more predominant for
celestial objects having huge mass

If an object is being acted upon by several

different gravitational forces, the net force on it

is the vector sum of the individual forces.

This is called the principle of superposition.

 Gravitational force between two object on earth

is very small & can be neglected. Ex
Force between to 100 kg balls one meter
apart is 6.7 10 7 N
F=

(G ) ( m1 m2 )
r2

(6.7 10 11 ) ( 100 100)

( 11 )
= 6.7 10 11 10 4
7 N
6.7

10
=

Gravitational force between a point mass and a

sphere is the same as if all the mass of the
sphere is concentrated at its center.

Even for large objects like earth & moon mass

can be considered as point mass at center for
deciding r .
Mass A

EARTH

Net force along center line

due to mass A & B

r2
r

r1
Mass B

Force due
to mass B

Force due
to mass A
These forces
cancel.Hence
net force
perpendicular
to center line
is zero

Thus addition of all forces due to mass at different

points gives net force in direction of center line as
if all mass is at center

As G is constant, its value must be

found out by experiment
Henry Cavendish did experiment to
measure G

Henry Cavendish experiment to measure G

Measured value of G

11

G 6.67310 Nm /kg
2

Gravitational acceleration due to earth

F=

(G ) ( m1 Me)
r2

Mass m1

g
r

m1 g

& F = m1 g

(G ) ( m1 Me)

Earth
G Me
mass Me g =
r2

r2
Value of g can
be measured
experimentally

g is independent of mass of body. = 9.80 m / sec2

A big stone , small stone ,a piece of paper dropped
from same height will reach ground in same time

Speed of falling

2
S
=
1/
2
g
t
Time
sec Distance traveled

(9.8 )12 = 4.9 m

2
3
4

(9.8)22 = 19.6 m
(9.8)32 = 44.1 m
(9.8)42 = 78.4 m

Free fall upward motion

Density of earth = Me / Vol = 5.5 gm cm

This 5.5 times more than density of earths

crust which consist water & soil (Density @ 1)
Density of earths core = app. 8.8 gm / cm 3!!!

From G we came to know how density is

earths core
Earths crust
Density @ 1

Earths core
Density =8.8

Calculating mass of sun:

From period earths revolution can calculate
centrifugal force on earth ( Fc= Me r 2 )
Now Fc = F, gravitational force due to sun
Earth Me

Fc

r
Sun
Ms

F = Fc =

(G ) ( Ms Me )
r2

Ms = 2.0 10 30 kg .

300,000 times more than earth

Now knowing Ms & rotation period of diff planets

we can calculate their distance from sun

End

Reference slides

Gravitation and tides in sea

Limitation of gravitational: constant G

The measurement of nearest position of
mercury from sun shows different value
than calculated by Newton law
So if we calculate value of G from this
measurement it shows different value

Contradiction to value of G
Perihelion of Mercury
Chang in
position of
nearest point of
Mercury to ein in
its orbit.

43 secs change
per 100 years

Mercury
orbit

430sec/ 100 years displacement is small

amount
But such change should not occur as per
Newtons laws
Hence Newtons laws can not explain this

Hypothesis:

Value of G depends on average

distribution of mass in Universe
If we come very near to a massive
object (Mercury near sun) that time
value of g will change

Satellite motion

Geostationary
Satellites

Rotating
Earth

Satellite
Rotating
at same
angular
velocity

Geostationary Satellites

v
r
Me

PE of satellite at rotating at
(G ) ( Me m )
radius r = r
Total energy = KE + PE

GM E m
1
2
E K U mv
2
r

Total energy of a GM m mv 2
GM E
2
E

v
satellite in a
2
r
r
r
circular orbit
GM E m
1 GM E GM E m
around the Earth E m

2
r
r
2r
is half of its
1
GM E m
gravitational
U

2
potential energy.
r

E U

Geostatic Satellite Orbits : earth = Satellite

M E m mv
Fg G 2
r
r

GM
v
=
r

R3

GM E speed
4
r
Angular
r

2 2

V=r

U g
m

GM
= 2

The product GM is called

as the geocentric
gravitational constant =
398,588. km3 s2:

Geostatic Satellite Orbits : earth = Satellite

GM
3
R = 2

Angular speed

V=r

Orbital Period = 23 h 56 m 4. sec( 1 sidereal day)

= 86164 Sec

The angular speed = 2 rad / Sederal day

=0.00007288

Geostatic Satellite Orbits : earth = Satellite

GM
3
R = 2

R3 =

Angular speed

V=r

6.67428 10 -11 x 5.972 x 1024

(7.288 10-5)2
6.67428 x 5.972 x 1024 x10 -11 x 10 10

(7.288 x 7.228)

Geostatic Satellite Orbits : earth = Satellite

GM
3
R = 2

Angular speed

R3 = 0.75034 x 1023
= 0.075034 x 1024 meters
R = 0.42178 x 108 meters
R = 42178 Km

V=r

Geostatic Satellite Orbits : earth = Satellite

r
R = 42178Km
6378km

r = 42178 6378 = 35800km

Let us use this for finding the geostationary orbit of an object in relation to mars.
The geocentric gravitational constant GM (which is ) for mars has the value of
42,828 km3s-2, and the known rotational period (T) of mars is 88,642.66
seconds. Since = 2/T, using the formula above, the value of is found to
be approx .00007088218. Thus, r^3 = 8,524,300,617,153.08. It is then simply a
matter of finding the cube root of r^3, which is 20,427.6255 and subtracting the
equatorial radius of mars (3396.2 km) to give us our answer of 17,031.42 km.

Whether satellite
Positioning satellite
Geo synchronous
satellite

Launching satellite
Revision

End