Mineral groups

Group
Silicates
Carbonates

Mostly gangue
Rock forming

Metals (Au, Ag, Cu), Semimetals (As, Bi)

Nonmetals (S, graphite, diamond)

Native elements
Sulphides

About 90% of Earth crust

Ores

Mm Xn where X=(S, As, Se, Te, Sb, Bi)

Sulphosalts

Metal + Semimetal + Sulphur

Oxides

Simple & multiple; hydroxides

Halides
Sulphates
Phosphates
Borates
Nitrates
Tungstates

Goldschmidt classification of elements

Based on distribution of elements in meteorites :
Metallic phase (iron)
Sulphide phase
Silicate (stony) phase

Lithophile (lithos = rock) tendency to occur as silicate or oxide

tend to stay close to the surface
Siderophile (sideron = iron) tendency to occur in metallic state
tend to sink into the core
Chalcophile (chalcos = ore, chalcogen) tendency to occur as sulphide
tend to stay close to the surface
Atmophile (atmos = vapour) tendency to occur in gaseous state
Some elements belong to more than one group

Goldschmidt classification
H He C N
F P Cl Ar
Br Kr I Xe

O
Li Be B Na Mg
Al Si K Ca Sc Ti V Cr
Mn Ga Rb Sr Y Zr Nb
Cs Ba Hf Ta

Fe
The classification
is very loose

Ge Ru Rh Pd
Sn W Re Os Ir
Pt Au

S Cu Zn As
Co Ni
Mo

Se Ag Cd In
Sb Te Hg Tl
Pb Bi

Native elements
Very uncommon in Earths crust rare and valuable
(except graphite significant rock forming mineral)
Type

Minerals

Metals

Gold group (Cu, Ag, Au)

Platinum group (Pd, Pt, PtIr)
Iron group (Fe, FeNi, NiFe)
Hg

Semimetals As, Sb, Bi

Nonmetals

S, C (graphite, diamond)

Gold
Au (usually pure, or with some Ag, Cu, or other metals)
Isometric, a = 4.0786, Z=4
Crystals : octahedra, dodecahedra, cubes, flakes or nuggets)
Hardness : 2.5-3
S.G. = 19.3
Cleavage : None. Malleable, sectile.
Lustre : Metallic
Colour : Yellow (if pure), lighter with Ag, reddish with Cu. Opaque
Streak : Same as colour

Silver
Ag (often pure, may contain Au or other metals)
Isometric, a = 4.0862, Z=4
Crystals : uncommon, arborescent or wire-like forms, scales, plates or fracture fillings
Hardness : 2.5-3
S.G. = 10.1-11.1
Cleavage : None. Malleable, sectile, ductile.
Lustre : Metallic
Colour : White, often with gray/black tarnish. Opaque
Streak : Same as colour

Copper
Cu (usually pure, may contain some Au or some other metals/semimetals)
Isometric, a = 3.615, Z=4
Crystals : Rare, cubic or dodecahedral
Hardness 2.5-3
S.G. = 8.95
Cleavage : None. Malleable, sectile.
Lustre : Metallic
Colour : Light rose (on fresh surface), rapidly tarnishes to red. Opaque
Streak : Same as colour

Platinum
Pt (usually pure, less often alloyed with Ir, Os, Ru)
Isometric, a = 3.9231, Z=4
Crystals : Rare, cubic close packed
Hardness 4-4.5
S.G. = 19
Cleavage : None. Malleable, ductile.
Lustre : Metallic
Colour : Whitish steel gray to dark grey
Streak : Same as colour

Gold fineness
800 fine = 80% of Au
990 (two nines fine) = 99.0% of Au
999 (three nines fine) = 99.9% of Au
Six nines fine finest gold ever produced (Perth Mint 1957)
999.9 (for nines fine) = 24 carats

Sulphides and related minerals

Large group of nearly 600 minerals only a few abundant but have great economic value
General formula MrXp
M = metal (Fe, Zn, Cu, Pb, Mo, Co, Ni, Hg, Ag, Sb, As, )
X = S (sulphides), As (arsenides), Te (tellurides), AsS (sulfarsenides), Sb, Se, Bi
Arsenides, tellurides etc.
(NiAs, AuTe2 , )
Part of the chalcogen/pnictogen groups
Share similar physical properties
(metallic lustre, high SG)
Occur with sulphides in many ore
deposits
Examples :

Altaite - PbTe, Niccolite NiAs,

Clausthalite - PbSe, Calaverite - AuTe2,
Ullmanite - NiSbS, Michenerite - (Pd,Pt)BiTe,
Sylvanite (Au,Ag)2Te4,
Scutterudite (Co,Ni)As3

Sulphide structure and bonding

Physical & chemical properties of sulphides related to their structure, which in turn
is a result of bonding
Sulphides represent a mixture of covalent + metallic bonds, in much lower extent
ionic bonding (due to the relatively low electronegativity od S)
Metal Sulphur : metallic bond
Sulphur Sulphur : covalent bond

Sulphide structure
derived from metal : sulphur ratio

Few simple structure types

M2X
M3X2

excess metal
excess metal

Ag2S, Cu2S

MX
MX2
M2S3

monosulphides
disulphides

PbS, ZnS, FeS, HgS, CuS, AsS

FeS2, MoS2, CuFeS2
Bi2S3, As2S3, Sb2S3

MX3

excess sulphur, rare

Most common
sulphides

Almost all sulphides

structure explained as
derivatives of simple types

Metal excess sulphides

Acanthite Ag2S -- Important ore of silver
Monoclinic below 173, cubic at higher T (argentite)
H 2-2.5 SG 7.3
Very sectile
Black colour, opaque (bright on fresh surface)
Black shining lustre

Chalcocite Cu2S -- Important copper ore

Monoclinic, pseudo-orthorhombic below 105C
hexagonal at higher T, however crystals uncommon
H 2.5-3 SG 5.5-5.8
Poor cleavage
Shining lead-gray colour, greyish streak
Metallic lustre
Bornite Cu5FeS4 Copper ore
Tetragonal below 228C, cubic above
H 3 SG 5.07
Brownish-bronze colour, tarnishing to blue-purple

Peacock
ore

Metal excess sulphides

Pentlandite (Fe,Ni)9S8 - Principal ore of nickel
Cubic a = 10.07, Z=4
H 3.5-4 SG 4.6-5.0
Colour : Yellowish bronze
Lustre : Metallic
Streak : Light bronze-brown
No cleavage. Brittle.

Fe : Ni ratio close to 1:1, commonly with some Co

Closely resembles pyrrhotite (with which it is often associated), but lacks magnetism.

Monosulphides
Galena PbS Most important source of lead, important ore of Ag
Cubic a = 5.936, Z = 4 (cubes, octahedrons)
H 2.5 SG 7.58
Lead-gray colour & streak, bright metallic lustre
Perfect cleavage {001, 010, 100}, brittle

Unit cell
4 formula units

Cleavage

Polished section
(white, pink tint)

Monosulphides
Sphalerite ZnS -- The most important ore for Zn (always contains some Fe)
Cubic a = 5.406, Z=4 (most often tetrahedral crystals, also cubes, dodecahedrons)
H 3.5-4 SG 3.9-4.1
Colour : pale yellow, light brown, brown
black (also red, green, white)
darker with Fe content
Lustre : Resinous, adamantine,
submetallic
Streak : White to light/medium brown (Fe)
Perfect dodecahedral cleavage. Brittle.

Unit cell, 4 formula units

Cleavage

Polished section

Galena

Sphalerite
structure comparison
Cubic lattice
Z=4

a = 5.936
Radius ratio Pb:S=1.19:1.72=0.692

a = 5.406
Radius ratio Zn:S=0.68:1.72=0.395

Pb and S in 6-fold (octahedral)

coordination

Zn and S in 4-fold (tetrahedral)

coordination
Above 1020C hexagonal wurtzite

Almost all sulphide structures

are derived from simple cells
like PbS and ZnS

Monosulphides
Chalcopyrite CuFeS2 Principal source for Cu
Tetragonal a = 5.281, c = 10.401 (two ZnS cells stacked atop each other)
H 3.5-4 SG 4.1-4.3
Colour : Brass yellow
Lustre : Metallic
Streak : Greenish black
Cleavage : Poor on {011} and {111}.
Brittle, uneven fracture.

Side view of unit cells

Zn4S4

Cu2Fe2S4

Zn4S4

Cu2Fe2S4
Derivative structure

Cu or Fe may occupy
additional
tetrahedral sites,
yielding
stoichiometries like
Cu9Fe8S16 or Cu8Fe10S16
Consequence of
metallic bonding

Stannite a further derivative

Derived from chalcopyrite half of Fe atoms replaced by Sn
CuFeS2

Cu2FeSnS4

Stannite ore for Sn, often contains some Zn

replacing Fe + traces of Ge

Monosulphides
Niccolite (nickeline) NiAs -- simple structure from which pyrrhotite is derived
Rhombohedral unit cell, three together form hexagonal shape
a = 3.61 c = 5.02 Z=2
H 5-5.5 SG 7.78
Colour : Pale copper-red
Lustre : Metallic
Streak : Brownish black

Top view of
3 niccolite unit cells
stacked together

Monosulphides
Pyrrhotite Fe(1-x)S -- Ore for Fe, mined for associated Ni, Cu, Pt
Structure derived from niccolite; troilite FeS has the same structure as NiAs
Monoclinic or hexagonal depends on Fe content

Occurrence histogram
Pyrrhotite structure can be explained by
systematic removal of Fe atoms from troilite

If a few atoms removed

lattice distorted but remains hexagonal
If more atoms removed
lattice changes to monoclinic

Pyrrhotite Fe(1-x)S continued

H 3.5-4.5 SG 4.58-4.65
Colour : Bronze yellow (red/brown cast)
Lustre : Metallic
Streak : Dark grayish black
Magnetic (more Fe, less magnetic)
Cleavage : None, brittle

The vacancies (omission solid solution)

explain the net magnetic moment
Less Fe, more magnetism
Magnetic properties important in exploration
and separation

Monosulphides
Cinnabar HgS -- Principal source of mercury
Hexagonal structure, H 2-2.5 SG 8.18
Colour : Red
Lustre : Adamantine
Streak : Scarlet
Perfect cleavage {100}

Millerite NiS -- A minor ore for nickel

Covellite CuS A minor ore for copper

Realgar AsS , Orpiment As2S3

Disulphides
Pyrite FeS2 Secondary ore for Fe, source of S, mined for associated Cu, Au
Cubic a = 5.418 , Z=4
structure of NaCl, Fe replacing Na, covalently bonded doublets S-S replacing Cl
H 6-6.5 SG 5.02
Colour : Bronze yellow
Lustre : Metallic
Streak : Greenish/brownish black
No cleavage. Brittle.
Most common sulphide

Marcasite FeS2 Secondary source of sulphur, minor economic value

Orthorhombic, often cockscomb crystals
H 6-6.5 SG 4.89
Colour : Pale bronze yellow
Lustre : Metallic
Streak : Grayish black
Cleavage on {101}
Spontaneous disintegration when exposed to humid air (-> FeSO47H2O)

Disulphides
Molybdenite MoS2 Principal ore for Mo
Hexagonal a = 3.16, c = 12.295 (hexagonal plates/prisms)
H 1-1.5 SG 4.62-4.73
Colour : Lead gray
Lustre : Metallic
Streak : Bluish/greenish gray
Cleavage : Perfect on {001}. Brittle. Sectile.
Semiconductor

Graphite-like structure of MoS2

Strong covalent bond Mo-S
Weak van der Waals bond between layers of S
Perfect cleavage along layers

Disulphides
Arsenopyrite FeAsS Principal source of As
Monoclinic (marcasite structure with half of S replaced by As)
H 5.5-6 SG 6.07
Colour : Silver white to steel gray
Lustre : Metallic
Streak : Black
Cleavage : Poor on {101}. Brittle.
Very often associated with gold (refractory)
As : S ratio variable
0.9:11 to 1.1:0.9
Some Co may substitute Fe ->
Glaucodot (Co,Fe)AsS

Distinctive feature garlic odour when struck

Solid solutions in arsenopyrite group

Gersdorffite
NiAsS

FeAsS
Arsenopyrite

CoAsS
Cobaltite

(Co,Fe)AsS
Alloclassite
Glaucodot

Sulphide structures -- summary

PbS

ZnS

NiAs

FeS2

Metal
excess

Galena
PbS

Sphalerite
ZnS

Niccolite
NiAs

Pyrite
FeS2

Chalcocite
Cu2S

Molybdenite
MoS2
(layers)

Altaite
PbTe

Greenockite
CdS

Pyrrhotite
Fe(1-x)S

Marcasite
FeS2

Digenite
Cu9S5

Stibnite
Sb2S3
(ring)

Alabandite
MnS

Chalcopyrite
CuFeS2
(derived)

Breithauptite
NiSb

Arsenopyrite
FeAsS

Djurleite
Cu31S16

Bismuthinite
Bi2S3
(ring)

Stannite
Cu2FeSnS4
(derived)

Troilite
FeS
(meteorites)

Cobaltite
(Co,Fe)AsS

Bornite
Cu5FeS4

Violarite
FeNi2S4
(thiospinnel)

Lllingite
FeAs2

Pentlandite
(Fe,Ni)9S8

Others

Structures dominated by a few simple structures & their derivatives

High percentage of metallic bonding -> lustre, conductivity, low melting point

Oxides
Oxygen is most abundant element in Earths crust. Most of it is tied with second
abundant element silicon to form silicates.
-> Oxide minerals (albeit abundant) as accessory minerals.
Several oxides are important ore minerals of some metals (Fe, Cr, Ti, Mn, Cu, Zn, Al, Mg)

Due to the high electronegativity of oxygen bonding predominantly ionic,

no metallic bonding
Thus oxides lack metallic lustre, are non-conductive. Similar to silicates.
The oxide mineral structures can be classified according
to the Metal : Oxygen ratio

Oxide minerals
X2O and XO group

Haematite X2O3 group

Cuprite

Cu2O

Haematite

Fe2O3

Periclase

MgO

Corundum

Al2O3

Zincite

ZnO

Ilmenite

FeTiO3

Spinel XY2O4 group

Rutile XO2 group

Magnetite

FeFe2O4

Rutile

TiO2

Chromite

FeCr2O4

Cassiterite

SnO2

Spinel

MgAl2O4

Pyrolusite

MnO2

Chrysoberyl

BeAl2O4

Uraninite

UO2

Some other important oxide minerals

Tenorite CuO
Gahnite ZnAl2O4
Columbite (Fe,Mn)Nb2O6

Franklinite (Zn,Fe,Mn)(Fe,Mn)2O4
Tantalite (Fe,Mn)Ta2O6

X2O group
Cuprite Cu2O -- Copper ore
Cubic a = 4.27, Z=2 Crystals are octahedrons, cubes, dodecahedrons or combination
H 3.5-4 SG 6.14
Colour : Deep red to brownish red
Lustre : Submetallic to adamantine, earthy
Streak : Brownish red
Cleavage : fair along {1,1,1}. Brittle.

Often associated with green malachite CuCO3(OH)2 and black tenorite CuO

Copper
ruby

XO group
Zincite ZnO -- Minor ore for zinc, used for production of zinc white (oxide)
Hexagonal a = 3.249 c = 5.205, Z=2, structure analogous to wurtzite (ZnS)
H 4 SG 5.68
Colour : Orange yellow to deep red
Lustre : Subadamantine
Streak : Orangish yellow
Cleavage : perfect along {100}

Periclase MgO Uncommon mineral

Cubic a = 4.213, Z=4, isostructural with NaCl, unhedral or subhedral octahedrons
H 5.5 SG 3.58
Colour : Colourless to white/gray
Lustre : Vitreous
Streak : White
Cleavage : perfect along {100}, imperfect on {111}

XY2O4 (spinel) group

Cubic (isometric) system with oxygen atoms in cubic close-packed arrangement
and X/Y atoms in tetrahedral/octahedral coordination IVXVIY2O4
Unit cell (a 8) contains 8 formula units (Z=8)
X cations divalent, Y cations trivalent (or half 2+ and half 4+)
Three series :

Spinel Series

Magnetite Series

Spinel

MgAl2O4

Magnetite

FeFe2O4

Hercynite

FeAl2O4

Magnesioferrite

MgFe2O4

Gahnite

ZnAl2O4

Ulvspinel

FeFeTiO4

Galaxite

MnAl2O4

Franklinite

ZnFe2O4

Jacobsite

MnFe2O4

Chromite Series
Chromite

FeCr2O4

Trevorite

NiFe2O4

Magnesiochromite

MgCr2O4

Hausmanite

MnMn2O4

Complete solid solutions within a series, partial solid solutions between the series
Economic importance good chromite ore requires high ration Cr:Fe

Spinel group
Magnetite Fe3O4 Iron ore
Cubic a = 8.396, Z=8 Crystals octahedral (less common dodecahedrons), often granular
H 5.5-6.5 SG 5.18
Colour : Black
Lustre : Dull metallic
Streak : Black
No cleavage
Attracted by a magnet

Normal spinel
IV

Lodestone

2
Mg2+ VI Al3+
O
2
4

Inverse spinel
IV

Fe3+ VIFe2+ VIFe3+O24

Spinel group
Chromite FeCr2O4 The only mineral ore for chromium
Cubic a = 8.38, Z=8 Crystals octahedrons, cubic faces, commonly granular
H 5.5-6 SG 5.09
Colour : Black
Lustre : Submetallic
Streak : Brown
No cleavage. Brittle.
Weakly magnetic.

Spinel MgAl2O4 -- Hercynite FeAl2O4 solid solution

Cubic a = 8.103 8.135, Z=8 Crystals octahedrons, often twins
H 7.5-8 SG 3.55-4.40
Colour : Green, blue-green, red & darker with Fe
Lustre : Vitreous
Streak : White
No cleavage. Brittle.

X2O3 (haematite) group

Common hexagonal (trigonal) structure. Oxygen anions hexagonally close-packed
with metal cations occupying octahedral sites between the anions.

Haematite Fe2O3 -- Important ore of iron

Hexagonal trigonal a = 5.038, c = 13.772, Z=6
H 5-6 SG 5.25
Colour : Coarse crystals steel gray, fine-grained dull to bright brownish red
Lustre : Coarse crystals metallic, fine grained dull to earthy
Streak : Rich-red brown
No cleavage. Brittle, elastic in thin laminae.

Iron rose

Haematite group
Corundum Al2O3 Gemstones, sapphire, abrasive
Hexagonal trigonal a = 4.75, c = 12.98, Z=6, Crystals commonly hexagonal prisms
H 9 SG 3.98-4.02
Colour : White/gray/blue, red (ruby), blue (sapphire)
Lustre : Vitreous to adamantine
No cleavage. Brittle.
High melting point -- 2044C

Ruby
Sapphire

Haematite group
Ilmenite FeTiO3 Major mineral ore for titanium
Hexagonal trigonal a = 5.089, c = 14.09, Z=6 Tabular parallels, with hex cross sections
H 5-6 SG 4.7-4.8
Colour : Black
Lustre : Metallic
Streak : Black
No cleavage. Brittle.

Solid solutions

FeTiO3

MgTiO3

MnTiO3

XO2 (rutile) group

Rutile TiO2 Significant source of titanium
Tetrahedral a = 4.593, c = 2.959, Z=2, Elongate tetragonal prisms, often fibrous
H 6-6.5 SG 4.23-5.5
Colour : Reddish brown; black, violet, yellow, green
Lustre : Metallic to adamantine
Streak : White
Cleavage : Good on {110}, fair on {010}. Brittle.
Very high refractive index (and dispersion)

Rutile structure
Edge-sharing chains of octahedra

Fibrous rutile

TiO2 is polymorphic
Anatase

Brookite

Tetragonal

Orthorhombic

FeTi2O5
Fe2TiO5

Fe2TiO4
FeO

Fe3O4

Monoclinic
Ilmenite reduction leads to
synthetic rutile
FeTiO3 + CO Fe + CO2 + TiO2

TiO2

FeTiO3

Akaogiite

Fe2O3

XO2 group
Cassiterite SnO2 Principal ore of tin
Tetragonal, a = 5.468, c = 3.188, Z=2, Isostructural with rutile
H 6-7 SG 6.9-7.1
Colour : Yellowish or reddish brown
Lustre : Adamantine
Streak : Grayish or brownish white
Cleavage : Imperfect on {100}, poor on {110} and {111}

Uraninite UO2 -- Major ore of uranium

Cubic, a = 5.468, Z=4, Octahedrons with cube and dodecahedron modifications
H 5-6 SG 10.95
Colour : Steely or brownish black
Lustre : Submetallic, also earthy
Streak : Brownish black or grayish
Cleavage : None. Brittle.

Radioactive

Summary
Metallic ores consist mainly of native metals, sulphides and oxides
Native metals -- mainly the precious metals; metallic bonding & lustre;
high conductivity
Sulphides mainly base metals; a few simple sulphide structure type dominates;
high degree of metallic (+ covalent) bonding; metallic lustre;
significant conductivity
More complex sulphides are mostly derivative structures of the simple types
Oxides dominated by ionic bonding;
lack metallic properties of metals & sulphides