SENIOR DESIGN

10/3
 TERMINOLOGY
• Microcontroller vs. Microprocessor vs.
Microcomputer
• A microprocessor is a central processing unit on a
single chip.
• A microprocessor combined with support circuitry ,
peripheral I/O components and memory (RAM &
ROM) used to be called a “microcomputer.”
• A microprocessor where all the components
mentioned above are combined on the same single
chip that the microprocessor is on, is called a
microcontroller.
• We will be using the ATMEGA 168 microcontroller.
MICROCONTROLLER
ARCHITECTURE
 MICRCONTROLLER
ARCHITECTURE
1: CPU -- fetches the instructions stored in the program memory, decodes
them, and executes them. The CPU itself is composed of registers the
arithmetic logic unit, the instruction decoder and control circuitry.
2: PROGRAM MEMORY: The program memory stores the instructions
that form the program. To accommodate larger programs, the program
memory may be partitioned as internal program memory and external
program memory (in some controllers). Program memory is usually
nonvolatile and is of EEPROM, EPROM, Flash, or OTP (one-time
programmable) type. [EEPROM for Atmega168].
3: RAM: The RAM is the data memory of the controller. The CPU uses
RAM to store variables as well as the stack. The stack is used by the
CPU to store return addresses from where to resume execution after it
has completed a subroutine or an interrupt call.
 MICRCONTROLLER
ARCHITECTURE
4: CLOCK OSCILLATOR: The controller executes the program out of the program
memory at a certain rate. This rate is determined by the frequency of the clock
oscillator. The clock oscillator could be an internal RC-oscillator [this is the
case for the Atmega 168], or an oscillator with an external timing element,
such as a quartz crystal or RC circuit. As soon as power is applied to the
controller, the oscillator starts operating.
5: RESET AND BROWNOUT DETECTOR CIRCUIT: The reset circuit in the
controller ensures that at startup all the components and control circuits
in the controller start at a predefined initial state and all the required
registers are initialized properly.

The brownout detector is a circuit that monitors the power supply voltage,
and if there is a momentary drop in voltage, resets the processor so that
the drop in voltage does not corrupt register and memory contents, which
could lead to faulty operations.
 MICRCONTROLLER
ARCHITECTURE
6: SERIAL PORT: The serial port can operate at any required data transfer speed. The serial
port takes data bytes from the controller and shifts out the data one bit at a time to the
output. Similarly, it accepts external data a bit at a time, makes a byte out of 8 such bits,
and presents this to the controller.
7: DIGITAL I/O PORT: The microcontroller uses the digital I/O components to exchange digital
data with the outside world. Compared to the serial port, which transfers data a bit at a
time, the data from the I/O port is exchanged as bytes.
8: ANALOG I/O PORT: Analog input is performed using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC).
The controller could be equipped with an integrated ADC or an analog comparator [the
Atmega 8 has both (?)] , which is used under software control to perform A-to-D
conversion. ADC’s are used to acquire sensor data from devices such as temperature
sensors and photocells. Such sensors often produce proportional analog voltage data.
Analog output is performed using a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) [must be externally
in case of Atmega 8].
Most controllers are equipped with pulse-width modulators that can be used to get analog
voltage with a suitable external RC filter [this is the case for the Atmega168]. DAC’s are
used to drive motors, to generate sound, for visual displays.. (dimming LED’s).
[SENSORS assignment].
 MICRCONTROLLER
ARCHITECTURE
9: TIMER: The timer is used by the controller to time events. The timer can also be used as a
counter.
10: WATCHDOG TIMER: A watchdog timer (WDT) is a special timer with a specific function. It
is usually used to prevent software crashes. It works as follows: Once armed, the WDT
increments an internal counter at some rate. If the user program does not reset the
counter, the counter overflows, which is used to reset the controller. .. . The assumption is
that if the user program does not reset the WDT, it has failed in some way and therefore
rather than system crash or unpredictable system performance, it is better to reset the
system.
11: RTC: A real time clock (RTC) is a special timer with the task of maintaining time of day,
date etc.. . It can be used to time-stamp events [must be externally added to
Atmega168].

-------------------------------------------------
Like microprocessors, microcontrollers are classified as 8-bit, 16-bit, etc.. . This refers to the
width of the internal registers and the accumulator.
An 8-bit system usually also means that the CPU connects to the various chip component
through an 8-bit data path.
MICRCONTROLLER
ARCHITECTURE
 FROM ATMEGA8
Datasheet.

In order to maximize performance and parallelism, the AVR uses a Harvard architecture
– with separate memories and buses for program and data. Instructions in the Program
memory are executed with a single level pipelining. While one instruction is being executed,
the next instruction is pre-fetched from the Program memory. This concept
enables instructions to be executed in every clock cycle. The Program memory is In-
System Reprogrammable Flash memory.

The fast-access Register File contains 32 x 8-bit general purpose working registers with
a single clock cycle access time. This allows single-cycle Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
operation. In a typical ALU operation, two operands are output from the Register File,
the operation is executed, and the result is stored back in the Register File – in one
clock cycle.
Six of the 32 registers can be used as three 16-bit indirect address register pointers for
Data Space addressing – enabling efficient address calculations. One of the these
address pointers can also be used as an address pointer for look up tables in Flash Program
memory. These added function registers are the 16-bit X-, Y-, and Z-register,
described later in this section.
The ALU supports arithmetic and logic operations between registers or between a constant
and a register. Single register operations can also be executed in the ALU. After
an arithmetic operation, the Status Register is updated to reflect information about the
result of the operation.
The Program flow is provided by conditional and unconditional jump and call instructions,
able to directly address the whole address space. Most AVR instructions have a
single 16-bit word format. Every Program memory address contains a 16- or 32-bit
instruction.
Program Flash memory space is divided in two sections, the Boot program section and
the Application program section. Both sections have dedicated Lock Bits for write and
read/write protection. The SPM instruction that writes into the Application Flash memory
section must reside in the Boot program section.

During interrupts and subroutine calls, the return address Program Counter (PC) is
stored on the Stack. The Stack is effectively allocated in the general data SRAM, and
consequently the Stack size is only limited by the total SRAM size and the usage of the
SRAM. All user programs must initialize the SP in the reset routine (before subroutines
or interrupts are executed). The Stack Pointer SP is read/write accessible in the I/O
space. The data SRAM can easily be accessed through the five different addressing
modes supported in the AVR architecture.
The memory spaces in the AVR architecture are all linear and regular memory maps.

A flexible interrupt module has its control registers in the I/O space with an additional
global interrupt enable bit in the Status Register. All interrupts have a separate Interrupt
Vector in the Interrupt Vector table. The interrupts have priority in accordance with their
Interrupt Vector position. The lower the Interrupt Vector address, the higher the priority.

The I/O memory space contains 64 addresses for CPU peripheral functions as Control
Registers, SPI, and other I/O functions. The I/O Memory can be accessed directly, or as
the Data Space locations following those of the Register File, 0x20 - 0x5F.
ATMEGA 8 FEATURES: --- LOOK AT DATASHEET !

• High-performance, Low-power AVR® 8-bit Microcontroller

• Advanced RISC Architecture
– 130 Powerful Instructions – Most Single-clock Cycle Execution
– 32 x 8 General Purpose Working Registers
– Fully Static Operation
– Up to 16 MIPS Throughput at 16 MHz
– On-chip 2-cycle Multiplier
• Nonvolatile Program and Data Memories
– 8K Bytes of In-System Self-Programmable Flash
Endurance: 10,000 Write/Erase Cycles
– Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits
In-System Programming by On-chip Boot Program
True Read-While-Write Operation
– 512 Bytes EEPROM
Endurance: 100,000 Write/Erase Cycles
– 1K Byte Internal SRAM
– Programming Lock for Software Security
• Peripheral Features
– Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescaler, one Compare Mode
– One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Prescaler, Compare Mode, and Capture
Mode
– Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator
– Three PWM Channels
– 8-channel ADC in TQFP and MLF package
Eight Channels 10-bit Accuracy
– 6-channel ADC in PDIP package
Eight Channels 10-bit Accuracy
– Byte-oriented Two-wire Serial Interface
– Programmable Serial USART
– Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface
– Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip Oscillator
– On-chip Analog Comparator
ATMEGA 8 FEATURES: --- LOOK AT DATASHEET !

• Special Microcontroller Features

– Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection
– Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator
– External and Internal Interrupt Sources
– Five Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save, Power-down, and
Standby
• I/O and Packages
– 23 Programmable I/O Lines
– 28-lead PDIP, 32-lead TQFP, and 32-pad MLF
• Operating Voltages
– 2.7 - 5.5V (ATmega8L)
– 4.5 - 5.5V (ATmega8)
• Speed Grades
– 0 - 8 MHz (ATmega8L)
– 0 - 16 MHz (ATmega8)
• Power Consumption at 4 Mhz, 3V, 25°C
– Active: 3.6 mA
– Idle Mode: 1.0 mA
– Power-down Mode: 0.5 μA
 ATMEGA 8 PINOUT

DIGITAL PORT AS WELL AS:

reset; RX/TX (serial
communication); RX/TX are ANALOG PORT
internally wired with FTDI chip
(USB to serial) on Arduino. can
still be used, but not at same
time that Arduino is using them.

DIGITAL PORT AS WELL AS:

DIGITAL PORT AS WELL AS: Serial Clock &
oscillators (can be used to Master/Slave/Slave Select for
connect external oscillator / SPI protocol. (used to connect
crystal; crystal more precise external hardware that uses SPI
than internal RC oscillator;) protocol. Ex: external
EEPROM).
most pins have dual functionality. Some of these pins
are internally wired with the Arduino and not available for usage.
SERIAL to USB CONVERTER

ATMEGA8 / ARDUINO INTEGRATION

voltage regulator

SPI

SERIAL to USB CONVERTER

Microcontroller
ARDUINO INTEGRATION
 ARDUINO
Digital I/O: pin 0-13:
•0-1: internally used for serial communication (program Arduino via USB); maybe used for external serial communication when
not being programmed. However, external devices need to be disconnected during programming. [solution to problem: use
software serial].
• * 2-8: general I/O pins. Like all I/O pins, these may be defined as either input or output pins.
• * 9-11: PWM pins. May also be used as standard I/O pins.
•* 12: general I/O. * 13: output pin. Internally wired to LED. May be connected to other components but must be used as
output pin.

Analog I/O:
•0-6: These pins have the same numbering as the digital pins, but are located at a different port. A different software function is
used in order to write to these ports. These pins may be used as analog input pins (used for sensors for example or for any
other variable analog input). They can also effectively be used as digital input or output pins.

•Power, Ground, AREF:

* GND: The Arduino provides 3 GND pins. All the grounds are internally connected and should be connected to the ground of
your circuity as well.
•+5V: When powered through the USB cable or a power adaptor, this pin provides 5V. This pin may also serve as an input pin
for +5V to power the board.
•* +9V: This is an input pin and may be used to power the board externally from a battery (for example).
•* AREF: Is used to change the resolution of analogue to digital convergence. We won't use this function in this workshop.
Instead we will do the same thing by re-writing the wiring.c source file, when using the Ozone sensor. (not for CO).

• THE ARDUINO MAY BE POWERED IN 3 DIFFERENT WAYS:

•1) Through the USB cable. This is particulary handy when programming the device.
• 2) Through and external power supply, using the power supply connector on the Arduino board.
•3) Through batteries or external power supply using the +5V or +9V pins on the Arduino.
PINMAPPING
 AVR LIB & ARDUINO
AVR hardware specifically designed to work with C-compiler. [Pic/ Assembly-yes,
AVR/ Assembly -good luck :)]

should be wiring.c
 DICE
• This assignment introduces you to the digital IO ports on the Atmega8. You will
create a dice game using 8 digital pins.

• The game should do the following:

• 1) When the game is turned on, each possible value (1-6) will be displayed on each die.
• 2) Whenever the button is pressed, the dice will "roll" and then display a random value, first
die one, then on die two.

• Supplies:
• 14 leds, 7 each of two different colors
• 10 x 1k ohm resistors
• 1 x 47k ohm resistor
• 1 momentary on pushbutton switch
• 2 x 2n2222 switching transistors
• wire
 DICE
• ASSIGNMENT GOALS:
• 1: familiarize yourself with Atmel/Arduino environment.
• 2: learn basic Arduino software commands.
• 3: understand Atmel -> Arduino pin connections.
• 4: describe functionality of a simple circuit.
 QuickTimeª and a
decompressor
are needed to see this picture.

This schematic indicates the

connections to the ATMEL,
NOT to the Arduino ports. You have to
compare the schematic
below to the Arduino schematic
available on our resource site,
in order to complete this assignment.
http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/HomePage
http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/HomePage
 TODAY IN LAB
• Install Arduino software.
• Connect an LED and write an “LED
blink” loop.

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