Optimal Load Time

Optimum Load Time

CE403
Construction Methodology

Compaction &
Finishing

The Compaction Process

Increasing density of a
soil by mechanically
forcing the soil particles
closer together,
expelling air in the void
spaces of the soil.
Can be accomplished in
a few hours.
4

Air
H2O

Soil

The Consolidation Process

Increasing density of
cohesive soils
resulting from the
expulsion of water
from the void
spaces in the soil.
May take as long as
months, or years.
5

Air
H2O

Soil

The Compaction Process

Improved Characteristic of Soil:

Increased Bearing Strength
Reduced Compressibility
Improved Volume-Change Characteristics
Reduced Permeability

Factors Affecting The Degree of

Compaction

The Soils Physical & Chemical Properties

The Soils Moisture Content
The Compaction Method
The Thickness of the Soil Layer (Lift)

The Four Basic

Compaction Forces

Static Weight (Pressure)

Manipulation (Kneading)

Impact

Low Frequency for Plastic Soils (10 Hz)

Vibration

Most Effective on Plastic Soils

Higher Frequency (80 Hz)

Effective on cohesionless soils ~ Sand & Gravel

Optimum Moisture Content

Very Important Factor

~ the moisture at which maximum density can occur.

Proctor Test: ASTM & AASHTO

Standard Proctor Test

Modified Proctor Test

ASTM D 698, AASHTO T-99

ASTM D 1557, AASHTO T-180

Proctor Compaction Tests

Test Details
Diameter of Mold

10

Standard
Modified
4" or 102 mm
4" or 102 mm
5" cut to 4.59"
5" cut to 4.59"
Height of Sample
127 mm cut to 117 mm 127 mm cut to 117 mm
Number of Layers
3
5
Blows per Layer
25
25
5.5 lb
10 lb
Weight of Hammer
2.5 kg
4.5 kg
2"
2"
Diameter of Hammer
51 mm
51 mm
12"
18"
Height of Hammer Drop
305 mm
457 mm
1/30 ft3
1/30 ft3
Volume of Sample
0.94 l
0.94 l
12,400 ft-lb/ft 3
56,200 ft-lb/ft 3
Compactive Effort
592 kJ/m3
2,693 kJ/m3

Dry Density lb/cu ft

Typical Compaction Test

11

Line Of
Optimums

Modified Proctor
Zero Air Voids

Standard Proctor

Water Content (% Dry Weight)

Modified
Proctor Test
Results for
Various Soils
15

Compaction Specifications

From 90 to 95% of the maximum density as

determined by either the Standard or
Modified Proctor Test.
For Example:

16

95% of Standard Proctor for Embankments,

Dams, and Backfills.
90% of Modified Proctor for floor slabs on-grade.
95% (to 100%) for pavements with high wheel
loads.

Dry Density lb/cu ft

Typical Compaction Test

Modified Proctor

Line Of
Optimums

Zero Air Voids

100% of Standard
Proctor

Standard Proctor
95% of Standard
Proctor

Water Content (% Dry Weight)

17

Types of Compaction Equipment

18

Tamping Foot Rollers

Grid/Mesh Rollers
Vibratory Compactors
Steel Wheel/Smooth Drum Rollers
Rubber Tired/Pneumatic Rollers
Segmented Pad Rollers
Rammers/Tampers

Vibratory
Compactors

HandOperated
19

Smooth & Padded Rollers

20

Pneumatic/Tired Compactor

21

Vibratory

22

Water Trucks

23

Equipment
Selection

25

Number of Pass Effect

Number of Passes
26

Number of Passes

27

Estimating Compactor Production

W xS xL xE
Production(CCY/h) 16.3 x
P
P = Number of Passes Required
W = Width Compacted per Pass, ft
S = Compactor Speed, mi/h
L = Compacted Thickness, Lift, in
E = Job Efficiency

28

Job Management

Lifts should be kept as thin as possible for the

most efficient compaction.
Typical Lift Specifications

29

5-8 for Rollers, except for Vibros & Pneums

12 for Heavy Pneumatic Rollers.
8 to 48 for Vibratory Rollers.
7 for Vibratory Rollers compacting Rock.

Grading & Finishing

31

32

Typical Roadway Components

Shoulder

Traffic Lanes
PAVEMENT
BASE
SUB BASE

SUBGRADE
Compacted or Stabilized

34

Shoulder

Blade Positions

35

Articulated Grader Positions

36

Estimating Production

Time, h

37

No. of Passes Section Length,mi

1

Efficiency
Ave. Speed for Section, mi

Grading Example

15.0 miles of gravel road requires reshaping & leveling.

Six passes of a motor grader will be required.
Job efficiency is 0.80
Based on operator skill, machine characteristics and
job characteristics, you estimate two passes at 4 mi/h,
two passes at 5 mi/h, and two passes at 6 mi/h for this
job.

2 15.0 m 2 15.0 m 2 15.0

1

Time, h

23.1h
5.0 mph 6.0 mph 0.80
4.0 mph
39

Output per work-hour defines

12%

1.

Construction productivity

3%

2.

Multi-factor productivity

82%

3.

Labor productivity

3%

4.

Partial-factor productivity

40

A _______ must be preceded by at

least two queue nodes
6%

1.

Normal element

0%

2.

Arc Element

6%

3.

Counter element

88%

4.

Combi element

41

Moisture content is the ratio of

3%

1.

Mass of Solids to Mass of Water

9%

2.

Mass of Water in the total volume of a soil

78%

3.

Mass of Water to Mass of Solids

9%

4.

Mass of Water to Total Mass of Soil

42

Given the following mass diagram, the total

volume cut for section B in 103 BCY is?
44%

1.

75

22%

2.

130

7%

3.

200

26%

4.

100

43

Which of the following machinery does not

utilize a swing-depth factor in its production
estimates?
0%

1.

Hydraulic Excavator

59%

2.

Shovels

35%

3.

Drag lines

6%

4.

Back hoes

44

Based on the following illustration, what is

the equation for the overturning moment of a
crane?
50%

1.

Lm(rm-f)

9%

2.

Lm(rm)

35%

3.

Lm(rm-s)

6%

4.

Lm(rm-b)

45

Rolling Resistance is due to

17%

1.

Tire penetration into the traveling surface

0%

2.

Tire flexing

3%

3.

Vehicle Weight

80%

4.

All of the above

46

Which of the following is an advantage of

using a scraper versus an articulated dump
truck?
0%

1.

Better fuel efficiency

3%

2.

Longer tire life

77%

3.

Faster maneuver and dump times

20%

4.

Better in poor underfoot conditions

47

Consider the following standard proctor. The soil has a current

moisture content of 4%. Specifications require minimum
compacted density of at least 98% of maximum dry density.
How much does the moisture content need to be increased?

27%

1.

7%

54%

2.

3%

15%

3.

15.7%

4%

4.

18%

48

49