WELDING

Types , Defects and Remedies

PREPARED BY
VIKRANT GULERIA
B.TECH,MBA,M.E.(NITTTR CHD)
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
SHIVA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
BILASPUR (HP)

Contents

Brief history of welding

Types of welding
Weldability of metal
Oxyacetylene welding
MIG
TIG
Submerged arc welding
Resistance welding
Thermit welding
Electroslag welding
EBW
Friction welding
Diffusion welding
Brazing and soldering
Welding defects and remedies

A Brief History of Welding

Late 19th Century

Scientists/engineers apply advances in electricity to heat
and/or join metals (Le Chatelier, Joule, etc.)
Early 20th Century
Prior to WWI welding was not trusted as a method to join
two metals due to crack issues
1930s and 40s
Industrial welding gains acceptance and is used
extensively in the war effort to build tanks, aircraft, ships,
etc.
Modern Welding
the nuclear/space age helps bring welding from an art to
a science

Types of Welding
Fusion Welding

Homogeneous

Pressure Welding

Heterogeneous
Brazing

Gas Welding
Electroslag
High Energy Beam
Electric Arc

Friction Welding

Soldering

MIG
TIG
Submerged Arc Welding

Weldability of a Metal

Metallurgical Capacity

Parent metal will join with the weld metal

without formation of deleterious constituents or
alloys

Mechanical Soundness

Joint will be free from discontinuities, gas

porosity, shrinkage, slag, or cracks

Serviceability

Weld is able to perform under varying

conditions or service (e.g., extreme
temperatures, corrosive environments, fatigue,
high pressures, etc.)

Fusion Welding Principles

Base metal is melted
Filler metal may be added
Heat is supplied by various means

Oxyacetylene gas
Electric Arc
Plasma Arc
Laser

Oxyacetylene Welding

The oxyacetylene welding process uses a combination of

oxygen and acetylene gas to provide a high temperature
flame
TORCH TIP
Inner Cone: 5000-6300
deg F

2300 deg F
Combustion Envelope 3800
deg F

OAW is a manual process in which the welder must personally

control the torch movement and filler rod application .
The term oxyfuel gas welding outfit refers to all the
equipment needed to weld.
Cylinders contain oxygen and acetylene gas at extremely high
pressure.

Pure Acetylene and Carburizing

Flame profiles

Pure Acetylene and Carburizing

Flame profiles

Typical Oxyacetylene Welding

(OAW) Station

Metal Inert Gas (MIG)

Uses a consumable electrode (filler wire
made of the base metal)
Inert gas is typically Argon

CONSUMABL
E ELECTRODE

DRIVE WHEELS

POWER
SOURC
E

SHIELDING GAS

BASE METAL

ARC COLUMN

PUDDLE

Tungsten Inert Gas (MIG)

Tungsten electrode acts as a cathode

A plasma is produced between the tungsten
cathode and the base metal which heats the base
metal to its melting point
Filler metal can be added to the weld pool
TUNGSTEN
ELECTRODE
(CATHODE)

++

--

++

BASE METAL (ANODE)

Submerged-arc
Welding
Flux : In SAW the weld arc is shielded by a granular flux
consisting of lime, silica, manganese oxide, calcium fluoride,
and other compounds. The flux is fed into the weld zone from
a hopper by gravity flow through a nozzle. The thick layer of
flux completely covers the molten metal, resulting in relatively
slow cooling and a high-quality weld joint, noted for toughness
and ductility . It prevents spatter and sparks. The flux also
acts as a thermal insulator by promoting deep penetration of
heat into the work piece. The unused flux can be recovered.
Electrode : The consumable electrode is a coil of bare round
wire 1.5 to 10 mm in diameter; it is fed automatically through
a tube.
Electric currents typically range from 300 to 2000 A.
Note : Because the flux is gravity fed, the SAW process is
limited largely to welds in a flat or horizontal position.

Submerged-arc Welding

Resistance Welding

Resistance welding (RW) is a group of

fusion welding processes that uses a
combination of heat and pressure to
accomplish coalescence . Heat required for
welding is produced by means of electrical
resistance across the two components to be
joined. These processes have major
advantages,
such
as
not
requiring
consumable electrodes, shielding gases, or
flux. The heat generated is given by :

Types of Resistance
Welding
Resistance Spot Welding : Fusion of the faying surfaces of a lap
joint is achieved at one location by opposing electrodes. The
process is used to join sheet-metal parts of thickness 3 mm
(0.125 in) or less, using a series of spot welds, in situations
where an airtight assembly is not required. The size and shape
of the weld spot is determined by the electrode tip, the most
common electrode shape being round, but hexagonal, square,
and other shapes are also used. The resulting weld nugget is
typically 5 to 10 mm (0.20.4 in) in diameter .
Materials used for RSW electrodes consist of two main groups:
(1) copper-based alloys
(2) refractory metal compositions such as copper and tungsten
combinations.
The second group is noted for superior wear resistance.

Resistance Seam Welding : The stick-shaped electrodes

in spot welding are replaced by rotating wheels. The
process is capable of producing air-tight joints, and its
industrial applications include the production of gasoline
tanks, automobile mufflers, and various other fabricated
sheet metal containers. Sharp corners and similar
discontinuities are difficult to deal with.
The spacing between the weld nuggets in resistance seam
welding depends on the motion of the electrode wheels
relative to the application of the weld current.

Resistance Projection Welding : Coalescence

occurs at one or more relatively small contact
points on the parts. These contact points are
determined by the design of the parts to be
joined, and may consist of projections,
embossments, or localized intersections of the
parts.

Flash Welding : In flash welding (FW), also called

flash butt welding, heat is generated very rapidly from
the arc as the ends of the two members begin to
make contact and develop an electrical resistance at
the joint. The flash-welding process is suitable for endto-end or edge-to-edge joining of sheets of similar or
dissimilar metals 0.2 to 25 mm thick and for endjoining bars 1 to 75 mm in diameter. Current is usually
stopped during upsetting.
Some metal, as well as contaminants on the surfaces,
is squeezed out of the joint

Upset welding (UW) (electrical resistance butt

welding) is similar to flash welding except that in
UW the faying surfaces are pressed together during
heating and upsetting. In flash welding, the heating
and pressing steps are separated during the cycle.
Heating in UW is accomplished entirely by electrical
resistance at the contacting surfaces; no arcing
occurs.
Percussion welding (PEW) is also similar to flash
welding, except that the duration of the weld cycle
is extremely short, typically lasting only 1 to 10 ms.
Fast heating is accomplished by rapid discharge of
electrical energy between the two surfaces to be
joined, followed immediately by percussion of one
part against the other to form the weld.

Thermit Welding:

A mixture of aluminium powder and iron

oxide (1:3) known as thermite that produces
an exothermic reaction when ignited at
1300C.The temperature from the reaction is
around 2500C, resulting in superheated
molten iron plus aluminium oxide that floats
to the top as a slag and protects the iron
from the atmosphere.

After the reaction is complete the crucible is

tapped and the liquid metal flows into a mold
built specially to surround the weld joint.
Because the entering metal is so hot, it melts
the edges of the base parts, causing
coalescence upon solidification. After cooling,
the mold is broken away, and the gates and
risers are removed by oxyacetylene torch or
other method.
Applications-Joining of railroad rails, and repair
of cracks in large steel castings and forgings
such as ingot molds, large diameter shafts,
frames for machinery, and ship rudders.

Electroslag Welding

It utilizes an arc to initiate welding. It is a fusionwelding process in which coalescence is achieved by

hot, electrically conductive molten slag acting on the
base parts and filler metal. It is performed in a vertical
orientation. At the start of the process, granulated
conductive flux is put into the cavity. The consumable
electrode tip is positioned near the bottom of the cavity,
and an arc is generated for a short while to start melting
the flux. Once a pool of slag has been created, the arc is
extinguished and the current passes from the electrode
to the base metal through the conductive slag, so that
its electrical resistance generates heat to maintain the
welding process. ESW is capable of Welding plates with
thicknesses ranging from 50 mm to more than 900 mm .
This process is used for large structural-steel sections,
such as heavy machinery, bridges, oil rigs, ships, and
nuclear-reactor vessels.

Electron-beam Welding

(EBW) is a fusion-welding process in which the heat for welding is

produced by a highly focused, high-intensity stream of electrons
impinging against the work surface.
The kinetic energy of the electrons is converted into heat as they
strike the workpiece. The process requires special equipment to
focus the beam on the workpiece, typically in a vacuum. The higher
the vacuum, the more the beam penetrates, and the greater is the
depth-to-width ratio
The methods are called EBW-HV (for high vacuum) and EBW-MV
(for medium vacuum); some materials also may also be welded by
EBW-NV (for no vacuum).
Electron-beam welding is noted for high-quality welds with deep
and/or narrow profiles, limited heat-affected zone, and low thermal
distortion, No filler metal is used, and no flux or shielding gases are
needed
Disadvantages:-high equipment cost, need for precise joint
preparation and alignment, and the limitations associated with
performing the process in a vacuum
Applications-Welding of aircraft, missile, nuclear, and electronic
components

Electron-beam Welding

Forge welding

Forge welding is of historic significance in

the
development
of
manufacturing
technology. The process dates from about
1000 BCE, when blacksmiths of the ancient
world learned to join two pieces of metal.
Forge welding is a welding process in which
the components to be joined are heated to
hot working temperatures and then forged
together by hammer or other means.

Friction Welding

Friction welding (FRW) is a solidstate welding

process in which coalescence is achieved by
frictional heat combined with pressure. The
friction is induced by mechanical rubbing
between the two surfaces, usually by rotation
of one part relative to the other, to raise the
temperature at the joint interface to the hot
working range for the metals involved. Then
the parts are driven toward each other with
sufficient force to form a metallurgical bond.

Diffusion Welding

Diffusion welding (DFW) is a process in which the strength

of the joint results primarily from diffusion (movement of
atoms across the interface) and secondarily from plastic
deformation of the faying surfaces. This process requires
temperatures of about 0.5TmThe bonded interface in
diffusion welding has essentially the same physical and
mechanical properties as the base metal. Its strength
depends on (a) pressure, (b) temperature, (c) time of
contact, and (d) how clean the faying surfaces are.

Schematic
representation of
diffusion welding
using
electrical
resistance
for
heating

Work pieces
Force
A
B

Applications of Diffusion
Welding
Application in titanium welding for aerospace vehicles.
Diffusion welding of nickel alloys include
Inconel 600
Dissimilar metal diffusion welding
applications include Cu to Ti, Cu to Al

Brazing and Soldering

Brazing and soldering are different from welding in that no

diffusion takes place at the interface, thus bond strength
depends on adhesive forces.
Brazing and soldering both use filler metals to join and bond
two (or more) metal parts to provide a permanent joint.
A filler metal is added in brazing and soldering as in most
fusion-welding operations; however, no melting of the base
metals occurs.
Brazing and soldering are attractive compared to welding under
circumstances where (1) the metals have poor weld ability, (2)
dissimilar metals are to be joined, (3) the intense heat of
welding may damage the components being joined, (4) the
geometry of the joint does not lend itself to any of the welding
methods, and/or (5) high strength is not a requirement.

WELDING DEFECTS

Residual Stresses and Distortion: The rapid

heating and cooling in localized regions of the
work during fusion welding, especially arc
welding, result in thermal expansion and
contraction that cause residual stresses in the
work piece . These stresses, in turn, can cause
distortion, warping, and buckling of the welded
parts.

Techniques to minimize warping

and distortion in workpiece:
(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Welding fixtures can be used to physically restrain movement of

the parts during welding.
Heat sinks can be used to rapidly remove heat from sections of
the welded parts to reduce distortion.
Tack welding at multiple points along the joint can create a rigid
structure prior to continuous seam welding.
Welding conditions (speed, amount of filler metal used, etc.) can
be selected to reduce warping.
The base parts can be preheated to reduce the level of thermal
stresses experienced by the parts.
Stress relief heat treatment can be performed on the welded
assembly, either in a furnace for small workpiece, or using
methods that can be used in the field for large structures.
Proper design of the workpiece itself can reduce the degree of
warping.

Porosity : Porosity in welds may be caused by

gases released during melting of the weld area,
but trapped during solidification or by chemical
reaction or by contaminants. Most welded joints
contain some porosity, which is generally in the
shape of spheres or of elongated pockets.
Remedies :
Proper selection of electrodes and filler metals.
Improved welding techniques, such as preheating
the weld area or increasing the rate of heat input.
Proper
cleaning
and
the
prevention
of
contaminants from entering the weld zone.
Reduced welding speeds to allow time for gas to
escape.

Slag lnclusions: Slug inclusions are

compounds such as oxides, fluxes, and
electrode coating materials that are trapped
in the weld zone. If shielding gases are not
effective during welding, contamination
from the environment also may contribute
to such inclusions.
Remedies :
Cleaning the weld-bead surface by means of
a wire brush (hand or power) or a chipper
before the next layer is deposited.
Providing sufficient shielding gas.

Incomplete Fusion and Penetration: It is simply a weld

bead in which fusion has not occurred throughout the entire
cross section of the joint. Lack of penetration means that
fusion has not penetrated deeply enough into the root of
the joint.
Remedies
Raising the temperature of the base metal.
Cleaning the weld area before welding.
Increasing the heat input.
Reducing the travel speed during the Welding.
Modifying the joint design.
Ensuring that the surfaces to be joined fit each other
properly.

Weld Profile:
Underfilling results when the joint is not filled with the
proper amount of weld metal .
Undercutting results from the melting away of the
base metal and the consequent generation of a
groove in the shape of a sharp recess or notch. If it is
deep or sharp, an undercut can act as a stress raiser
and can reduce the fatigue strength of the joint; in
such cases, it may lead to premature failure.
Overlap is a surface discontinuity usually caused by
poor welding practice or by the selection of improper
materials

Cracks :Cracks are fracture-type interruptions either in the weld

itself or in the base metal adjacent to the weld. This is perhaps
the most serious welding defect because it constitutes a
discontinuity in the metal that significant reduces weld strength.
Reasons:Temperature gradients that cause thermal stresses in the Weld
zone.
Variations in the composition of the Weld zone that cause
different rates of contraction during cooling.
Embrittlement of grain boundaries
Hydrogen embrittlement
Inability of the weld metal to contract during cooling
Remedies:Modify the joint design to minimize stresses developed from
shrinkage
Preheat the components to be welded.
Avoid rapid cooling of the welded components.

References
Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing
by Mikell P. Groover
www.usna.edu