Dynamic Analysis of Switching Converters

Chapter 6
Dynamic analysis
of switching converters
Avg switch
a
c
p
L1
L1
C1
Vdc
a) averaged buck converter.
R1
Avg switch
c
p
a
C1
Vdc
b) averaged boost converter.
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Overview
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
Switching converter analysis using classical control

techniques
Averaged switching converter models
Review of negative feedback using classical-control
techniques
Feedback compensation
State-space representation of switching converters
Input EMI filters
Power switching converters
3.5
4.5
-3
Continuous-Time Linear Models
2.5
Time (sec.)
Dynamic analysis of switching converters
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Overview
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
Continuous-time and discrete-time domains
Continuous-time state-space model
Discrete-time model of the switching

converter
Design of a discrete control system with

complete state feedback
3.5
4.5
-3
Discrete-time models
2.5
Time (sec.)
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
Dynamic analysis
0.05
0
0
0.5
Dynamic or small-signal analysis of the switching

converter enables designers to predict the dynamic
performance of the switching converter to reduce
prototyping cost and design cycle time
Dynamic analysis can be either numerical or

analytical
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
Dynamic analysis
0.05
0
0
0.5
Switching converters are non-linear time-variant

circuits
Nevertheless, it is possible to derive a continuous

time-invariant linear model to represent a switching
converter
Continuous-time models are easier to handle, but

not very accurate
Since a switching converter is a sampled system, a

discrete model gives a higher level of accuracy
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Linear model of a switching

converter
Vref
Vo
PWM
Switch
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
Vo
LPF
Load
(a)
Z
Vo
Load
ZL
(b)
3.5
4.5
-3
ZL
k Vref
Zo Z L
Vref
2.5
Time (sec.)
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
PWM modulator model
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
Sensitivity of the duty cycle with respect to vref
Vp
^
Vref
v ref
Vp
^
D
1
v ref v ref
Vref
Vp
3.5
4.5
-3
Voltage-mode control
Vref
2.5
Time (sec.)
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
PWM modulator model
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
Current- mode control

diL VL I P I1
dt
L
D
( I P I1 ) L
VL
d ^ d ^ d ^
d
iL
vc
Ip
iL
vc
I p
^
Variation of the duty cycle due to a perturbation in the inductor current

r
Vd Vc
L
^
d T
^
i L( 0)
i L r ( d T )
r
^
L
d
iL
(Vd Vc ) T
^
i L( 0)
d
i L
L
(Vd Vc ) T
^
(D+ d) T
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
T
8
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
PWM modulator model
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5

Variation of the duty cycle due to a perturbation in the output voltage
r1 (Vd Vc ) L
r1 I DT
^
r ' [Vd (Vc v c )] L
r ' I ( D d ) T
(Vd Vc ) L
r1
I DT
r ' I ( D d^ ) T [V (V v^ )] L
c
d
c
^
^
v
c
d D
^
V V v
c
c
d
^
^
D
d D
d vc
V
V
v
c
c
d
d
d T
DT
Ip
r1
I
iL
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
D T
(D d ) T
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
PWM modulator model
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5

Variation of the duty cycle due to a perturbation on the peak current
^
Ip
dT
r
^
^
d T
V Vc
r d
L
^
Ip L
d
T Vd Vc
^
1 L
^
I p T Vd Vc
Ip+p
p
Ip
r
iL
D T
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
^
(D + d ) T
10
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Averaged switching converter

models
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
Three-terminal averaged-switch model
v1
Vap
D
v1
d
i1
ic
c
(common)
1
i1 I c d
p
(passive)
3.5
4.5
-3
Averaged-switch model for voltage-mode control
a
(active)
2.5
Time (sec.)
11
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3

models
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
L1
L1
C1
Vdc
a) averaged buck converter.
R1
Avg switch
c
p
a
C1
Vdc
R1
b) averaged boost converter.
3.5
4.5
-3
Examples of switching converters with an averaged switch
Avg switch
a
c
p
2.5
Time (sec.)
12
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3

models
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
Ia
,
Vac
Ia
d,
D
I
I 2 2 p v ac ,
Vac
I1 2
I3 2
go
Ip
D
gi
I2
I1
I3
go
d,
Ip
Vcp
3.5
4.5
-3
Small-signal averaged-switch model for the discontinuous mode

gi
2.5
Time (sec.)
13
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3

models
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
^
Vo
Qz
POWER
STAGE
MODEL
^
Vg
IL
Ts
^
d
DTs Ri
L
D
1 ,
2
(1 D) 2 Ts Ri
kr
,
2L
and
1
Fm
.
( S n Sc )Ts
kf
Fm
^
Von
+
Kf
^
Voff
Kr
H e (s)
3.5
4.5
-3
Small-signal model for current-mode control

s
s2
H e ( s) 1
2
nQz n
2.5
Time (sec.)
Ri
^
Vc
14
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Output filter model
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
Vo (s) =
1
sC o
sLo
V s(s) .
1
sL o + R o //
sC o
1
V o(s)
C o Lo
=
.
s
1
(s)
2
Vs
+
s +
C o R o L oC o
2
o
H(s) = 2
,
2
+
2
s
+
s
o o
1
sCo
Vs (s)
Ro
Vo (s)
3.5
4.5
-3
Output filter of a switching converter

R o //
2.5
Time (sec.)
o=
2R C o
Lo
L oC o
15
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Output filter model
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
30
Ro
>
Lo
Co
Magnitude Response (dB)
10
-10
Ro =
-20
1 Lo
2 Co
-30
Ro
2 2
2
20log G( ) 10log 1 4

o
o
<
Lo
Co
-40
-50
0.01
3.5
4.5
-3
Magnitude response of the output filter for several values of the

output resistance Ro
20
2.5
Time (sec.)
0.1
10
100
f / fo
16
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Output filter model
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
-20
Ro =
Phase Response (degree)
o
( ) tan 1
2
-60
1 Lo
2 Co
-80
Ro
-100
<
Ro
>
Lo
Co
Lo
Co
-120
-140
-160
-180
0.01
0.1
10
100
f / fo
3.5
4.5
-3
Phase response of the output filter for several values of the output
resistance Ro
-40
2.5
Time (sec.)
17
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Output filter model
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
Output filter with a capacitor Resr

s+
H(s) =
f ESR
R o R esr
C o R esr
.
+
C
L
R
R
R
(
+
)
o
o o esr
L o R o R esr s 2 + o
s+
L oC o( R o + R esr )
L oC o( R o + R esr )
1
2 R e sr Co
sLo
+
+
Vs (s)
1
sCo
Ro
Vo (s)
Resr
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
18
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Output filter model
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
2 2
2

20log G( ) 10log(1 2 2 ) 10log 1 4

o
20
Ro
Magnitude response of
an output filter with a
capacitor having a Resr
for several values of
the output resistance
Ro
-20
Ro =
>
Lo
Co
1 Lo
2 Co
-40
Ro
-60
<
Lo
Co
-80
-100
0.001
0.01
0.1
10
fo
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
f / fo
100
1000
fesr
19
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
Output filter model
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
Phase response of an output filter with a capacitor having a Resr

for several values of the output resistance Ro
0
-20
Ro
>
Lo
Co
Ro
<
Lo
Co
-40
Phase Response (degree)
f
2
f
fo
1
-1
=
tan
LC
.
2 tan
f esr
1 f
f
o
Ro
o
LoCo ( Ro R e sr )
-60
Ro =
1 Lo
2 Co
-80
-100
-120
Lo
Co R e sr o
Ro
2
Co R e sr
-140
-160
-180
0.001
0.01
0.1
100
10
fo
1000
fesr
f / fo
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
20
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Example 6.4
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
3.5
4.5
-3
The boost converter shown in Figure 2.10 has the

following parameters: Vin = 10 V, Vo = 20 V, fs = 1
kHz, L = 10 mH, C = 100 F and RL = 20 . The
reference voltage is 5 V. The converter operates in
the continuous-conduction mode under the voltagemode. Using (a) the averaged-switch model,
calculate the output-to-control transfer function, and
(b) Matlab to draw the Bode plot of the transfer
function found in (a) .
2.5
Time (sec.)
21
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
Example 6.4
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
(a)
The nominal duty cycle can be calculated as
x 10
V0
V
V
1
1 D d D 1 d
Vd 1 D
V0
V0
for the given input and output voltages, we have D=0.5.
Small-signal model of the boost converter

L
V
I C (1 D)I0 (1 D) 0
R0
10mH
v0
1 D2 s 2
1 D
LC
LC
1 D2
R 1 D
L
1
C 2R 1 D
Vap
d
D
i1-i2
v o
passive
i1
Vap D - 1 sLIC
+ v2 -
Ic
Vap V0
i2
common
1
+ v1 -
Icd
20
100uF
active
22
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Example 6.4
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
3.5
4.5
-3
vc VP
V
VP VC
VP ref 10V
D
1
D
2.5
Time (sec.)
23
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Example 6.4
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
Bode plot of the small-signal transfer function of the boost converter

Bode Diagram
Magnitude (dB)
50
-50
-100
0
Phase (deg)
-45
-90
-135
-180
-225
-270 10 1
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
10
24
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude
Small-signal models of switching

converters
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
25
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude

converters
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
26
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude

converters
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
27
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude

converters
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
28
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude

converters
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
29
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude

converters
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
30
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude

converters
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
31
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude

converters
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
32
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Review of negative feedback
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
Vo
A (s)
(s)
3.5
4.5
-3
Block diagram representation for a closed-loop system

Vref
2.5
Time (sec.)
33
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
Review of negative feedback
Closed-loop gain
Vo
A
Vref 1 A
Loop gain
TL A
0
0
0.5
1.5
Stability analysis
3.5
4.5
-3
A 1
A 1 or
phase( ) phase( A) 180
2.5
Time (sec.)
Vo
1
Vref
For TL>>1
0.05
34
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Relative stability
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
20
-50
-20
-100
-40
-150
Phase margin = 40
Phase Angle
Magnitude (dB)
Gain margin =8dB
-180
-60
-200
-80
-250
1.0
f1
3.5
4.5
-3
Definitions of gain and phase margins
0.2
2.5
Time (sec.)
f'
10
20
35
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Relative stability
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
Magnitude
0
-20dB /decade
-45
-40dB /decade
Phase
-90
Gain
margin
-60dB /decade
-135
g
fg
f p1
fp2
p
fp
f p3
Phase
margin
-180
-225
-270
3.5
4.5
-3
Loop gain of a system with three poles

20 log |TL( j)|
2.5
Time (sec.)
36
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
Closed-loop switching
converter
Vref
Compensation
PWM
Switch
(s)
0.3
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
LPF
Vo
Load
37
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Feedback network
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
L1
Qs
+
Dfw
Vs
C2
RL
Va
Z2
Base Drive
Circuitry
R2 V a
R2
R1 R2
Vref
+
.
Rc
Error
Amplifier
Sawtooth
signal
Vcc
CLOCK
. +
Comparator
R2
Z1
Ve
PWM out
Vsp =
R1 + R2
-
Va ' Vo
R1
Qst
Cc
(a)
38
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Error amplifier compensation

networks
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
PI Compensation network
1
1
+
R
sC 2
sC 1
H(s) =
.
1
1
+
R1 R 2 +
sC
sC 2
1
f p=
C2
1
2 R 2C 2
1
2 R 2C 1
C1
R2
f1
lag = tan .
f p
-1
R1
Vfb
f 1
-1
=
lead tan
f z
f z=
1 + sR 2C 1
.
sR 1( C 1 + C 2 + sR 2C 1C 2 )
H(s) =
The total phase lag

f1
f 1
-1
+
.
tan
f z
f p
= 270 o - tan -1
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
Verror
Vref
39
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3

networks
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
70
Magnitude response (dB)
50
30
10
0
-10
0.01
0.1
10
fz = 854.3
100
1000
10000
fp = 21,832
f (kHz)
3.5
4.5
-3
Frequency response of the PI compensation network
-30
0.001
2.5
Time (sec.)
40
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude

networks
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
-20
Phase response (degrees)
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
0.01
0.1
10
100
1000
10000
f (kHz)
3.5
4.5
-3
Phase response of the PI compensation network
-90
0.001
2.5
Time (sec.)
41
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3

networks
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
PID Compensation network

H(j ) =
f p1 =
(1+ j R 2C 1 )
(1+ j ( R 1 + R 3 )C 3 )
.
- 2 R 2C 1C 2 + j ( C 1 + C 2 ) R 1 + j R 1 R 3C 3
C2
( C1 + C 2 )
f p2 =
2 R 2C 1C 2
1
2 R 3C 3
R3
f z1 =
1
2 R 2C 1
z2 =
1
2 ( R 1 + R 3 )C 3
C3
R1
-
8
Vref
R2
K 1=
R1
C1
R2
Vfb
Verror
R 2( R 1 + R 3 )
=
K2
R1R 3
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
42
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3

networks
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
Magnitude responce (dB)
K2
+ 20dB / decade
K1
- 20dB / decade
Part of interest
f
f z1
f z2
f p1
f p2
3.5
4.5
-3
Magnitude response of the PID compensation network
- 20dB / decade
2.5
Time (sec.)
43
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude

networks
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
20
15
10
-5
-10
0.1
10
fz1
fz2
fp1
100
1000
10000
fp2
f (kHz)
3.5
4.5
-3
Magnitude response of the PID compensation network
-15
0.01
2.5
Time (sec.)
44
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude

networks
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
60
40
Phase response (degrees)
20
-20
-40
-60
-80
0.01
0.1
10
fz1
fz2
fp1
100
1000
10000
fp2
f (kHz)
3.5
4.5
-3
Phase response of the PID compensation network
-100
0.001
2.5
Time (sec.)
45
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3

networks
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
x 10
Asymptotic approximated magnitude response of the PID

compensation network
2 R 2C 1
1
2 ( R 1 + R 3 )C 3
f1
-1
=
2
zd
tan
R 2C 1 = ( R1 + R 3 )C 3 .
f zd
1
( C 1 + C 2 ) R3
C 1C 2
=
.
C3=
2 R 3C 3 2 R 2C 1C 2 R 2
C1 + C 2
f1
.
pd = 2 tan
f
pd
-1
Magnitude responce (dB)
K2
+ 20dB / decade
- 20dB / decade
-1
- 20dB / decade
Region of interest
f1
f1
-1
= 270 - 2 tan
.
+ 2 tan
f
f
zd
pd
o
K1
f zd
f pd
46
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Compensation in a buck converter

with output capacitor ESR
average output voltage: 5 V
input voltage: 12 V
load resistance RL = 5
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
Lo
Qs
100uH
Co
100uF
R1
Dfw
R3
100K
RL
Resr
0.5
R2
R4
100K
Z2
Comparator
Z1
Ve
+
Currente
Driver
Vref
Error
Amplifier
Sawtooth
Oscillator
Pulse-Width Modulator
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
Output Filter
Vs
12V
Design the compensation

to shape the closed-loop
magnitude response of the
switching converter to
achieve a -20 dB/decade
roll-off rate at the unitygain crossover frequency
with a sufficient phase
margin for stability
0.25
47
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude

0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
20 [ log 10 ( 2.5 / 5) ] = - 6 dB
20 [ log 10 ( V s / V p ) ]
fo
=
5
(100 x106 )(100 x106 )(5 0.5)
1.517 kHz
2
1
= 3.18 kHz
2 (0.5)100x10 -6
f1, is chosen to be one-fifth of the switching

frequency
3.5
4.5
-3
R4
R3 + R4
Ro
LoCo ( Ro R e sr )
2.5
Time (sec.)
48
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3

Magnitude response of the buck converter

40
open-loop (ABCD)
- 20dB / decade
closed-loop (JKLMNO)
J
20
K
L
error amplifier EFGH
E
F
0
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
Compensation
network
G
- 20dB / decade
C
Open loop
gain GH(s)
-20
- 20dB / decade
N
D
-40
-60
O
0.1
10
f (kHz)
4.5
-3
f1
x 10
Time (sec.)
- 40dB / decade
0.25
100
1000
49
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
2
1
LC = tan
1

-1
70.1 .
2 tan
f
f
esr
f o
f
fo
5
5
-1
= 64.9 .
tan - tan
f z
f p
-1
To: Y(1)
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
C2 =
2 R 2 f
= 774 pF
z
1
2 R 2 f
3.5
4.5
-3
-1 1
f"
tan
tan " = 64.9 .
f
2.5
Time (sec.)
-1
C1=
ea = 315 70.1 = 244.9 .
0.25
Amplitude

0.3
= 38 pF .
p
50
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
f
f
2 tan -1 1 - 2 tan -1 1 = 270 o - 135 o = 135 o .
f
f zd
pd
1
2 tan -1 f" - tan -1 " = 135o .
f
C3 =
1
2 f
pd
= 0.16 F .
To: Y(1)
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
( R 1 + R 3 )C 3
=
= 0.13 F .
C1
R2
R3
C 1C 3
R 2 = 5.29 nF .
C2=
[ C 1 - C 3 R3 ]
R2
phase(delay ) 360* tdelay * f1
R3
0.25
Amplitude

with no output capacitor ESR
0.3
51
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
Magnitude response of the buck converter

50
open-loop ABC
closed-loop HIJKL
error amplifier DEFG 30 H
+ 20dB / decade
0
To: Y(1)
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
A
E
J
f1
- 20dB / decade
-10
- 40dB / decade
- 40dB / decade
-30
-50
C
0.1
10
L
100
1000
f (kHz)
4.5
-3
- 20dB / decade
I
x 10
Time (sec.)
D
10
0.25
Amplitude

with no output capacitor ESR
0.3
52
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
Linear model of a voltage

regulator including external
perturbances
0.3
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
GVref
vo
vref
io 0
vo
v ref
v DC 0
io 0
Switching
v^ DC
GVDC
vo
vDC
io 0
vo
v DC
VDC
io 0
output impedance
Gio
Vo
I o
v ref 0
v DC 0
v ref 0
v ref 0
vref 0
Io
converter
audio susceptibility
vo
io
Vref
^
vref
Zo
v DC 0
4.5
-3
vo GVref v ref GVDC v DC Gio i o

v DC 0
x 10
Time (sec.)
53
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Output impedance and stability
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
Z of
Output impedance
Z oo
1 A
0.5
1.5
Vo
1
1
1
Z of Z o Z L
Load
ZL
Zoo
1
1
Zo

Z
of Z L
1
1
Zo

Z
of Z L
1 Z of
(a)
Z
Vref
Vo
Z oo
Z of
Z L Z of Z o
(s)
ZL
Zo
Zof
(b)
3.5
4.5
-3
Z
Vref
2.5
Time (sec.)
54
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
State-space representation of
switching converters
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
x1
u1 L x1 x2
L
+
dx
x1 = 1
dt
x1 = C x 2 +
x2 =
u1
x2
R
dx 2
dt
x1 = -
x2 u1
+
L L
x -x
x2 = 1 + 2 .
C RC
x2
x= A x+ B u
1
0
1
x1
L
x = A, =
, u = [ u1 ] , B = L .

1 - 1
x2
0
C
RC
4.5
-3
Review of Linear System Analysis

A simple second-order low-pass circuit
x 10
Time (sec.)
55
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude
State-space representation of
switching converters
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
1
1
(s +
)
X 1(s) = L
RC
U 1(s) ( s 2 + s + 1 )
RC LC
-1
X (s) = (s I - A ) B U(s)
1
1
s
+
1
RC
L
L U(s)
1
s
0
X 1(s)

C
.
(s) =
s
1
2
X 2
+
s +
RC LC
1
X 2(s) =
LC
.
U 1(s) ( s 2 + s + 1 )
RC LC
3.5
4.5
-3
Review of Linear System Analysis

A simple second-order low-pass circuit
s X (s) = A X (s) + B U(s)
2.5
Time (sec.)
56
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude
State-Space Averaging
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
approximates the switching converter as a

continuous linear system
requires that the effective output filter corner

frequency to be much smaller than the
switching frequency
57
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
Procedures for state-space averaging
Step 1: Identify switched models over a switching cycle. Draw

the linear switched circuit model for each state of the switching
converter (e.g., currents through inductors and voltages across
capacitors).
Step 2: Identify state variables of the switching converter. Write
state equations for each switched circuit model using Kirchoff's
voltage and current laws.
Step 3: Perform state-space averaging using the duty cycle as a
weighting factor and combine state equations into a single
averaged state equation. The state-space averaged equation is
x = [ A1d + A2 (1- d)] x + [ B1 d + B 2 (1- d)] u .

58
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
Step 4: Perturb the averaged state equation

to yield steady-state (DC) and dynamic (AC)
terms and eliminate the product of any AC
terms.
Step 5: Draw the linearized equivalent circuit

model.
Step 6: Perform hybrid modeling using a DC

transformer, if desired.
59
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
Qs
x1
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude
State-Space Averaged Model for an

Ideal Buck Converter
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
Dfw
x2
3.5
4.5
-3
+
u1
2.5
Time (sec.)
60
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
u1 L x1 x2
x1 = C x 2 +
x2
R
x1
1
0

x1 1
x
L
1
=
+ L [ u1 ]
1 x2
x 1
2
0
C
RC
0 = L x1+ x2
x1 = C x 2 +
To: Y(1)
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
x2
R
x2
(a) dT interval
x
1
0

L x 1 0
x1 =
+ [ u1 ]
1 x 2 0
x 1
2
C
RC
x2
(b) (1-d)T interval
3.5
4.5
-3
u1
2.5
Time (sec.)
0.25
Amplitude

0.3
61
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude

0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
1
1
0
0
L
L
A=
d+
(1- d)
1 - 1
1 - 1
C
C
RC
RC
1
0
L
A=
.
1
1
C
RC
1
d
0
B = L d + (1- d) = L .

0
0

0
1
0

x1 d
x
L
1
L [ u1 ] .
=
+
1 x2
x 1
2
0
RC
C
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
62
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
x1 = -
x2 d
+ u1
L L
x1
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude
A nonlinear continuous equivalent

circuit of the ideal buck converter
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
1
1
x 2 = x1 x2 .
C
RC
u1 d
x2
u1d = L x1 + x2
x1 = C x 2 +
x2
.
R
3.5
4.5
-3
2.5
Time (sec.)
63
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
A linear equivalent circuit of the

ideal buck converter
^
du 10
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
x1
Du1
x2
d x2 1
1
x10 x1
x20 x 2
dt
C
RC
0=
1
1
x1 x20 D u10 x 2 D u1 d u10
L
L
x2 =
1
1
x
x
( x10 - 20 ) + ( x 1 - 2 ) .
C
R
C
R
3.5
1
(- x 20 + Du 10 )
L
1 1
dx
= ( x 2 Du1 du10 )
dt L
0=
1
x
( x 10 - 20 )
C
R
x 20
=D .
u 10
x 2 = D u 1 + d u 10 - L dx1 .
dt
x 10 =
4.5
-3
d x1
1
1
x20 x 2
D d u10 u1
dt
L
L
Time (sec.)
d = D + d .
0.2
0.15
+
-
x1 = x10 + x1 , x2 = x20 + x2 ,
u1 = u10 + u1 ,
0.25
x 20
.
R
64
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
^
du 10
x 1 = C
To: Y(1)
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
x1
Du1
x2
x2 = Du 1 + d u 10 - L x1
x20 + x 2 = - L x1 + D(u10 +u1 ) + d u10 .
x10 + x1 = C x 2 +
x20 + x 2
R
x1 = C x 2 +
x2
.
R
3.5
4.5
-3
d x 2 x 2
+
.
dt
R
2.5
Time (sec.)
+
-
d x2 1
x
= ( x 1 - 2 )
dt
C
R
0.25
Amplitude
A linear equivalent circuit of the

ideal buck converter
0.3
65
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
^
_ u10
d
D
L
__
2
D
u1
x 2 x2 D 2
D x1 D C
D D R
D2 C
x
2
__
D
__
R
2
D
4.5
-3
Dx 1
+
3.5
x 10
Time (sec.)
+
-
d
L
x
u1 + u10 = 2 + 2 x1 D
D
D D
0.25
Amplitude
A source-reflected linearized
equivalent circuit of the ideal buck
converter
0.3
66
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
^
du 10
To: Y(1)
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
x1
x2
3.5
4.5
-3
+
u1
2.5
Time (sec.)
+
-
1:D
Amplitude
A linearized equivalent circuit of

the ideal buck converter using a DC
transformer
0.25
67
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
State-space averaged model for the

discontinuous-mode buck converter
A A1 d1 A2 d2 A3 1 d1 d2
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
x 10
x1
+
B B1 d1 B2 d2 B3 1 d1 d2
u1
x2
x1 = 0
(a) d1 T interval
x
C x2 + 2 = 0 .
R
0
0
A3
0 - 1
RC
0
B3 = .
0
x1
L
+
x2
(b) d 2 T interval
x2
(c) (1 - d1 - d 2 ) T interval
68
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude
State-space averaged model for the

discontinuous-mode buck converter
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
d1
B= L .

0
0 ( d 1+ d 2 )

x 1 d 1
x
L
1
=
+ L u1
1 x2
x d 1+ d 2
2
0
C
RC
3.5
4.5
-3
0 ( d 1+ d 2 )
L
A=
+
1
d
d
1
2
C
RC
2.5
Time (sec.)
69
x 10
x1 = -
( d1+ d 2 )
d1
x2 + u1
L
L
u1 d1 d1 d2 x2
x2 =
From: U(1)
0.3
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude

circuit for the discontinuous-mode
buck converter
Step Response
0.35
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
(d 1 +d2 ) x 2 +
-
(d1 +d2 ) x 1
x2
x1 (0) x1 (T ) 0
4.5
-3
d1 u 1
3.5
x 10
x1
( d1+ d 2 )
x2
.
x1 C
RC
2.5
Time (sec.)
70
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.3
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude

circuit for the discontinuous-mode
buck converter
0.35
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
u1 d1 d1 d2 x2
( u 10 + u 1 )( D 1 + d 1 ) = ( D 1 + d 1 + D 2 + d 2 )( x 20 + x 2 ) ,
d x 2 ( D 1 + d 1 + D 2 + d 2 )
( x + x 2 )
=
( x 10 + x 1 ) - 20
,
dt
C
RC
x2 =
( d1+ d 2 )
x2
.
x1 C
RC
x1 = ( u 1 - x 2 )
d1
2Lf s
x 10 + x 1 = ( u 10 + u 1 - x 20 - x 2 )
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
( D 1 + d 1 )
.
2Lf s
71
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
A linearized equivalent circuit

for the discontinuous-mode
buck converter
0.3
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
u^ 1
r1
g1 ^x2
g2 ^u1
r2
^
j 2d1
x2
3.5
4.5
-3
+
^
j 1 d1
2.5
Time (sec.)
72
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
State-Space Averaged Model for a

Buck Converter with a Capacitor
ESR
Qs
x1
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
Dfw
2.5
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
+
x2
Resr
0.25
C
u1
0.3
y2
73
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
x1
x + R esrC x 2
x1 = C x 2 + 2
R
u1 = L x1 x2 + R e sr C x 2
- R esrR
L( R + R)
esr
x1 =
R
x
2
C( R esr + R)
-R
1
L( R esr + R) x 1
+ L [ u1 ] .
-1
x2
0
C( R esr + R)
To: Y(1)
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-3
x 10
Time (sec.)
0.3
Amplitude
Switched models for the buck

converter with a Resr
0.35
u1
+
x2
R
Resr
y2
(a) dT interval
0 = L x1+ x2 + R esrC x 2 .
-R R e sr
L( R + R)
e sr
x1 =
R
x
2
C( R e sr + R)
x1 = C x 2 +
x2 + R esrC x 2
R
x1
L( R e sr + R) x 1 0
+ [ u1 ] .
-1
x 2 0
C( R e sr + R)
-R
+
x2
Resr
(b) (1-d) T interval

y2
74
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
- R esrR
L(
R esr + R)
A = A1 d A2 (1 d ) A1 A2 =
R
C(
R esr + R)
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude
Switched models for the buck

0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
- R esrR
L( R + R)
esr
x1 =
R
x
2
C( R esr + R)
-R
L( R esr + R)
.
-1
C( R esr + R)
-R
d
L( R esr + R) x 1
+ L [ u1 ]
-1
x2
0
C( R esr + R)
3.5
4.5
-3
d
B = B1 d B2 (1 d ) = L .

0
2.5
Time (sec.)
75
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
x1 =
- R esrR
R
d
x1 x2 + u1
L( R esr + R)
L( R esr + R)
L
x2 =
R
C( R esr + R)
d u 1 = L x1+
x1 -
x2
C( R esr + R)
x1
u1 d
R
R esrR
x1 +
x2
( R esr + R)
( R esr + R)
To: Y(1)
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
+
x2
Resr
y2 =
4.5
x 10
y2
R x2
R esrR x 1 + R x 2 = (
R esr //R)x 1 +
( R esr + R) ( R esr + R)
( R esr + R)
3.5
( x 2 + R esrC x 2 )
.
x1 = C x 2 +
R
-3
d u 1 = L x1 + y 2
2.5
Time (sec.)
0.25
Amplitude
A nonlinear continuous
equivalent circuit for the buck
0.3
76
A linearized continuous
equivalent circuit for the buck
u 10 + u 1 )
d x1 - R esrR( x10 + x 1 ) R( x 20 + x 2 ) (D+d)(
=
+
dt
L( R esr + R)
L( R esr + R)
L
From: U(1)
0.3
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
Du1
0=
R
C( R esr + R)
x 10 -
x 20
.
C( R esr + R)
4.5
x 10
+
x2
d x1
- R esrR
R
D u 1
=
x 1 x 2 +
dt L( R esr + R)
L( R esr + R)
L
d u 10
+
L
d x2
R
x 2
=
.
x 1 dt C( R esr + R)
C( R esr + R)
y2
The AC terms are
- R esrR
R
Du 10
x 10 x 20 +
L( R esr + R)
L( R esr + R)
L
3.5
-3
Resr
0=
x1
The DC terms are
2.5
Time (sec.)
+
-
d x 2 R( x10 + x 1 ) ( x 20 + x 2 )
=
.
dt C( R esr + R) C( R esr + R)
^
du10
Step Response
0.35
77
A linearized equivalent circuit

using DC transformer with a
turns-ratio of D
^
du 1
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
Resr
Du 1 + d u 10 = L x1+ ( R esr //R)x 1 +
y2
R x2
= L x1+ y 2
( R esr + R)
3.5
4.5
-3
R
1
x1 x2 .
R esr + R
R esr + R
2.5
Time (sec.)
+
x2
u1
C x2 =
0.25
x1
From: U(1)
0.3
+
-
1:D
Step Response
0.35
78
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
x1
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude
State-Space Averaged Model for

an Ideal Boost Converter
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
Dfw
Qs
x2
u2
3.5
4.5
-3
u1
2.5
Time (sec.)
79
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
State-Space Averaged Model

for an Ideal Boost Converter
u 1 = L x1
u 2 = C x2 +
1
0
0
x 1 L
x1 = 0
1 +
x x2 0
2
RC
u 1 = L x1 + x 2
x2
R
0
u 1
.
1 u 2
C
0.3
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
x1
+
u1
x2
u2
u2
(a) dT interval
x2
x1 + u 2 = C x 2 +
R
x1
+
1
0
1
-

L x1 L
x1 =
+
1 x 2 0
x 1
2
C
RC
o
u 1
.
1 u 2
C
u1
x2
(b) (1-d) T interval
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
80
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
1
0
0
0
A = A1 d A2 (1 d ) = 0
d
+
(1- d)
- 1
1
1
RC
C
RC
A=
(1- d)
C
1
L
B = B1 d B2 (1 d ) =
0
1
L
B=
0

x1 =
x (1- d)
2
C
0
1
L
d+
1
0
-(1- d)
1
x1 L
L
+
1 x 2 0
RC
(1- d)
1
C
0
u 1
1 u 2
C
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude
State-Space Averaged Model for

an Ideal Boost Converter
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
-(1- d)
L
.
1
RC
.
1
C
-(1- d) x 2 u 1

L
L
x1 =
+ .
x (1- d) x 1 x 2 u 2
2
C
RC C
81
x 10
Nonlinear continuous
equivalent circuit of the ideal
boost converter
-(1- d)x 2 1
x1 =
+ u1
L
L
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
u1
___
1- d
C
___
1- d
3.5
x2
2
___
u
1- d
R (1- d)
C
u2
x2
+ x1 =
x2 +
.
(1- d)
(1- d)
R(1- d)
4.5
-3
(1- d)x1 x 2 u 2
+
C
RC C
2.5
Time (sec.)
L
___
1- d
L
u1
=
x1 + x 2
(1- d) (1- d)
x2 =
From: U(1)
0.3
x1
Step Response
0.35
82
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude
Linearized equivalent circuit of

the ideal boost converter
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
d x 2 (1- D - d)
1
1
=
( x 10 + x 1 ) ( x 20 + x 2 ) + u 2 ,
dt
C
RC
C
d x1 -(1- D)
d
1
1 D
1
=
x20 u10
x 2 + x 20 + u
dt
L
L
L
L
L
d x 2 (1- D)
d
1
1
(1- D)
1
=
x 1 - x 10 x 2 + u 2 +
x 10 x 20 .
dt
C
C
RC
C
C
RC
3.5
4.5
-3
d x1 -(1- D - d)
1
=
( x 20 + x 2 ) + ( u 10 + u 1 )
dt
L
L
2.5
Time (sec.)
83
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude

0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
0=
(1- D)
u 10
x 20 +
L
L
(1- D)
1
x10 x 20.
C
RC
1
x 20
=
u 10 (1- D)
x 20
x 10 = R
(1- D)
x 10 =
u 10
,
2
R(1- D )
3.5
4.5
-3
DC solutions
0= -
2.5
Time (sec.)
84
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.3
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude
Linearized equivalent circuit

of the ideal boost converter
0.35
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
d x1
= - (1- D)x 2 + d x 20 + u 1
dt
d x2
x
= (1- D) x 1 - x 10d - 2 + u 2 .
dt
R
small-signal averaged state-space equation
0
x
(1 D )
L
(1 D )
x20
1
L
L
d L
x
1
x10
0
C
RC
0 u1

u 2
1
3.5
4.5
-3
AC solutions
L
2.5
Time (sec.)
85
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.3
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude

0.35
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
+
-
L
___
1-D
u1
___
1-D
C
___
1-D
x2
R (1-D)
^
x10 d
____
1-D
u2
___
1-D
L
1
x 20d
x1 = - x 2 +
+
u1
(1- D)
(1- D) (1- D)
C
1
1
x10 d
x 2 = x1 +
x2
u2 .
(1- D)
(1- D) R(1- D)
(1- D)
3.5
4.5
-3
x1
^
x20 d
____
1-D
2.5
Time (sec.)
86
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Source-reflected linearized
equivalent circuit for the ideal
boost converter
^
x 20 d
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
+
-
+
u1
x2 (1-D)
R (1-D)
^
x10 d
____
1-D
u2
___
1-D
L x1 = - x 2(1- D) + x 20d + u 1 .
C
x10d x2 (1- D)
u2
[
x
(1D)]
=
+
,
2
x
1
2
2
(1- D) R(1- D ) (1- D)
(1- D )
3.5
4.5
-3
x1
C
____
2
(1-D)
2.5
Time (sec.)
87
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
Load-reflected linearized
circuit for the ideal boost
converter
0.3
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
u1
___
1-D
+
L
____
2
(1-D)
x1 (1-D)
C
x2
x 10 d^
u2
C x 2 = x1(1- D) -
x2
- x10d + u 2 .
R
L
u1
x 20d
x (1- D) = - x 2 +
+
.
2 1
(1- D) (1- D)
(1- D )
3.5
4.5
-3
+
-
^
x20 d
____
1-D
2.5
Time (sec.)
88
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
DC transformer equivalent
circuit for the ideal boost
converter
x1
^
x 20 d
+
-
u1
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
+
x2
x 10 d^
u2
3.5
4.5
-3
L
(1-D) : 1
2.5
Time (sec.)
89
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude
Switching Converter Transfer

Functions
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
sX(s)= A0 X(s) + B0U(s) + Ed(s)
x A0 x B 0 u E d
A0 = [ A1D + A2(1- D)]
(sI - A0 )X(s)= B0 U(s) + E d(s)
B 0 = [ B 1D + B 2(1- D)]
E = ( A1 - A2 )x0 + ( B1 - B2 )u0 .
-1
-1
.
X(s) = (s I - A0 ) B0U(s) + (s I - A0 ) E d(s)
3.5
4.5
-3
Source-to-State Transfer Functions
2.5
Time (sec.)
90
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude

Functions
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
Source-to-State Transfer Functions

linearized control law
= T (s)X(s) + QT (s)U(s)
d(s)
F
T
X(s)= (sI - A0 )-1( B0U(s)+ E[ F T(s)X(s)+ Q (s)U(s)])
X (s)
T
= [ sI - A0 - E F T(s) ] -1( B0 + E Q (s))
U(s)
X(s) = [ sI - A0 - E F T(s) ] -1[ B0 + EQ (s)]U(s) .
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
91
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude

Functions
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
1
0
-
D
u 10

x1
x
L
1
=
+ L [ u 1 ] + L d .

1 x2
x 1
0
2

0
C
RC
d(s) =
u 10
E= L .

0
V e(s) [1 + H(s)]V R(s) - H(s) X 2(s)

=
VP
VP
F (s) = 0
D

B0 = L
0
-H(s)
VP
= - H(s) X 2(s) .
d(s)
VP
Q (s) = 0 0 .
T
3.5
4.5
-3
BUCK CONVERTER
1
0
L
=
A0
1 - 1
C
RC
2.5
Time (sec.)
92
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude

Functions
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
1 u 10H(s)
+
L
LV P
1
s+
RC
-1
D
L [ U 1(s)]

0
u 10H(s) + 1 )
s
+
-(
D
RC
L
LV
P
L [ U 1(s)]
1
s 0

X 1(s)
C
.
(s) =
s
1
H(s)
u
10
2
X
2
+
+
s +
RC LC LCV P
D
1
[s +
]
X 1(s) =
L
RC
U 1(s) S 2 + s + 1 + u 10H(s)
RC LC LCV P
D
X 2(s) =
LC
.
s
1
H(s)
u
(s)
10
2
U1
+
+
S +
RC LC LCV P
3.5
4.5
-3
BUCK CONVERTER
s
X 1(s)
(s) =
X 2 - 1
C
2.5
Time (sec.)
93
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3

Functions
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
x 10
BOOST CONVERTER
0

x1 =
x (1- D)
2
C
-(1- D)
1
L x 1 L
+
1 x 2 0
RC
0
x 20
u 1 L
+
d .
1 u 2 x 10
C
C
s
(1- D) x 20H(s)
L
X 1(s)
LV P
=
(s)
X 2 -(1- D) (s + 1 ) - x 10H(s)
C
RC
CV P
-1
1 o
L
U 1(s)
.
o
1
(s)
U
A0 =
(1- D)
C
-(1- D)
L
1
RC
1
L
B0 =
0
1
C
s
(1- D) x 20H(s)
L
X 1(s)
LV P
=
(s)
X 2 -(1- D) (s + 1 ) - x 10H(s)
C
RC
CV P
-1
x 20
L
E=
.
- x 10
C
1 o
L
U 1(s)
.
o
1
(s)
U
94
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3

Functions
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-3
x 10
Time (sec.)
BOOST CONVERTER
1
1 x 10H(s)
[s +
]
L
RC CV P
X 1(s) =
.
x
10H(s)R
U 1(s)
s[1]
(1- D )2 x 20H(S)(1- D)
V
2
P
+
+
s +
RC
LC
LCV P
-(1- D)
H(s)
[1+ u 10
]
2
LC
X 1(s) =
V P(1- D )
.
2
s
H(s)
(1D
H(s)
)
U 2(s)
u
u
2
[1- 10
]+
[1+ 10
]
s +
2
2
RC
LC
V P(1- D )
V P(1- D )
1- D
X 2(s) =
LC
.
s
(1- D )2
U 1(s)
u
u
10H(s)
10H(s)
2
[1]+
[1+
]
s +
2
2
RC
LC
V P(1- D )
V P(1- D )
X 2(s) =
U 2(s)
s
C
s
(1- D )2
H(s)
u
10H(s)
2
[1]+
[1+ u 10
]
s +
2
2
RC
LC
V P(1- D )
V P(1- D )
95
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Complete state feedback
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
This technique allows us to calculate the

gains of the feedback vector required to place
the closed-loop poles at a desired location
All the states of the converter are sensed and

multiplied by a feedback gain
3.5
4.5
-3
2.5
Time (sec.)
96
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude
Design of a control system with

0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
x A x B u
u F x
x (A B F) x
closed-loop poles
det[s I A B F ] 0
The closed-loop poles can be arbitrarily placed by choosing the

elements of F
3.5
4.5
-3
control strategy
2.5
Time (sec.)
97
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude

0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
One way of choosing the closed-loop poles is to select an ith

order low-pass Bessel filter for the transfer function, where i is
the order of the system that is being designed
Feedback gains
F PLACE ( A B P)
3.5
4.5
-3
Pole selection
2.5
Time (sec.)
98
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude

0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
A buck converter designed to operate in the

continuous conduction mode has the following
parameters: R = 4 , L = 1.330 mH, C = 94 F, Vs =
42 V, and Va = 12 V.
Calculate (a) the open-loop poles, (b) the feedback

gains to locate the closed loop poles at P = 1000 * {0.3298 + 0.10i -0.3298 - 0.10i}, (c) the closed loop
system matrix ACL.
3.5
4.5
-3
Example
2.5
Time (sec.)
99
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude

0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
1
L
; B1 L
1
0
RC
0
A2
1
C
0
L
; B2
1
0
RC
A A1 D A2 (1 D );
B B1 D B 2 (1 D )
0
A
1
C
D
L
; B L
1
0
RC
3.5
4.5
-3
Solution
0
A1
1
C
2.5
Time (sec.)
100
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude

0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
polesOL = 1000 * { -1.3298 + 2.4961i, -1.3298 - 2.4961i}
^
^
1 ^
x1 ( x 2 D u d U )
L
1 ^ 1 ^
x 2 ( x1 x 2 )
C
R
0
x
1
C
x^ D ^ U ^
L 1
L u L d
^

1
x
0
RC 2
0
3.5
4.5
-3
polesOL = eig(A)
2.5
Time (sec.)
101
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3

To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
3.5
4.5
-3
Step response of the linearized buck converter
sysOL=ss(A,B,C,0)
step(sysOL)
2.5
Time (sec.)
x 10
102
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude

0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
design the control strategy
U
EL

0
x A x E d
u0
D ^
d
v ref
Vref
^
for voltage-mode control
If we apply complete state feedback v ref F x
D
x A x E (
F x)
Vref
^
^
D
x (A E
F) x
Vref
ACL A E
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
D
F
Vref
103
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude

0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
D
, P)
Vref
Then, F = {-2.6600 -0.3202}.

ACL A E
D
F
Vref
0.2000 -0.0511
ACL 1e4
1.0638 -0.2660
check the locations of the closed loop poles
eig(ACL); which gives

ans = 1e+2 * [ -3.2980 + 1.0000i -3.2980 - 1.0000i]
3.5
4.5
-3
we calculate the feedback gains as

P=1000 *[-0.3298 + 0.10i -0.3298 - 0.10i]'
F place( A, E
2.5
Time (sec.)
104
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
PSpice schematic
0.3
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
L1
0.05
out
pwm
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-3
S1
+
-
Time (sec.)
V1 = 42
V2 = 44
TD = 5m
TR = 1n
TF = 1n
PW = 1
PER = 1
V2
1.33mH
IC = 0
VON = 1.0V
VOFF = 0.0V
ROFF = 1e6
RON = 0.05
R1
C1
D1
Dbreak
94uF
IC = 0
E1 GAIN = 1
+
if ( V(%IN1)>V(%IN2),0,1)
pwm_out
PWM modulator
x2
+
-
E
control
PARAMETERS:
loop = 0
saw
x1_
12
V1 = 0
V2 = 10
TD = 0
TR = 99.9u
TF = 1n
PW = 1n
PER = 0.1m
V4
{loop}
-0.3202
0
3
-2.6600
Vref
x1
I(L1)
x2_
3
105
x 10
Transient response of the

open-loop and closed-loop
converters
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
Open loop
13V
12V
11V
Closed loop
10V
9V
8V
7V
6V
5V
4V
3V
2V
1V
0V
0s
0.5ms
V(OUT)
1.5ms
2.5ms
3.5ms
4.5ms
5.5ms
6.5ms
7.5ms
8.5ms
9.5ms
Time
3.5
4.5
-3
15V
14V
2.5
Time (sec.)
106
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.3
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude
Expanded view of the transient

at 5 ms
0.35
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
Open loop
12.000V
Closed loop
5.00ms
V(OUT)
5.50ms
6.00ms
6.50ms
7.00ms
7.50ms
8.00ms
8.50ms
Time
3.5
4.5
-3
12.602V
11.104V
4.61ms
2.5
Time (sec.)
107
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Input EMI filters
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
An input EMI filter placed between the power source

and the switching converter is often required to
preserve the integrity of the power source
The major purpose of the input EMI filter is to

prevent the input current waveform of the switching
converter from interfering with the power source
As such, the major role of the input EMI filter is to

optimize the mismatch between the power source
and switching converter impedances
3.5
4.5
-3
2.5
Time (sec.)
108
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Input EMI filters
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
LI
Lo
Re
1:D
u1
CI
Input EMI Filter
3.5
4.5
-3
Circuit model of a buck converter with an input EMI filter
Rs
2.5
Time (sec.)
Co
RL
Buck Converter
109
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Input EMI filters
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
The stability of a closed-loop switching

converter with an input EMI filter can be
found by comparing the output impedance of
the input EMI filter to the input impedance of
the switching converter
The closed-loop switching converter exhibits

a negative input impedance
3.5
4.5
-3
Stability Considerations
2.5
Time (sec.)
110
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Input EMI filters
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
Output impedance of the EMI filter
Z EMI =
R s + j L I
.
2
(1 - C I L I ) + j R sC I
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
RL
R LC o
+
]
+
j
[
] ),
Z in = _ 2 ( [
R
L
e
o
2
2
1+( R LC o )
1+( R LC o )
D
Zin
At the resonant frequency
RL + RE
D2
Re
Z in = - 2 .
D
Z in = 2 f L
2
D
Above the resonant frequency

Z in = -
j L
D
Re
D2
f
1
2 RL Co
4.5
-3
Input impedance versus frequency for a buck converter

1
3.5
x 10
Time (sec.)
1
2 Lo Co
111
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Input EMI filters
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
The maximum output impedance of the input EMI filter, ZEMI,max,

must be less than the magnitude of the input impedance of the
switching converter to avoid instability
Z in Z EMI,max .
The switching converter negative input impedance in

combination with the input EMI filter can under certain conditions
constitute a negative resistance oscillator
Zin // Z EMI
To ensure stability, however, the poles of
should lie in the left-hand plane
3.5
4.5
-3
2.5
Time (sec.)
112
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
Input EMI filters
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
A resistance in series with the input EMI filter inductor can be

added to improve stability
However, it is undesirable to increase the series resistance of the

input EMI filter to improve stability since it increases conduction
losses
3.5
4.5
-3
2.5
Time (sec.)
113
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Input EMI filters
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
Rd
LI
u1
3.5
4.5
-3
Input EMI filter with LR reactive damping

Ld
2.5
Time (sec.)
CI
-RL
114
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Input EMI filters
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
3.5
4.5
-3
Input EMI filter with RC reactive damping

LI
Rd
CI
u1
-RL
Cd
2.5
Time (sec.)
115
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Input EMI filters
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
It should be noted that high core losses in the input EMI filter
inductor is desirable to dissipate the energy at the EMI frequency
so as to prevent it from being reflected back to the power source
3.5
4.5
-3
2.5
Time (sec.)
116
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Input EMI filters
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
Rd
Ld
u1
3.5
4.5
-3
A fourth-order input EMI filter with LR reactive damping
LI 2
LlI
2.5
Time (sec.)
CI1
CI2
-RL
117
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Input EMI filters
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
Input impedance, Zin(f), of the buck converter and output

impedance, ZEMI(f), of the input EMI filter
Z ( ) =
1
D
2.5
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
x 10
RL
R
LC o
2
+
+
,
R
L
e
o
2
2
1+(
1+(
)
)
C
C
R
R
L
L
o
o
50
| Z in (f) |
30
R +( L I )
.
Z EMI ( ) =
2
2
2
1- C I L I +( R sC I )
2
s
Magnitude (dB)
10
0
-10
| Z EMI (f) |
-30
-50
-70
0.01
0.1
10
Frequency (Hz)
100
1000
118
10000
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
Part 2
Discrete-time models
119
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
continuous-time system
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude
Continuous-time and discrete-time

domains
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
3.5
x A x(t ) B u(t )
The solution for the differential equation
x(t ) e x(to ) e A(t ) B u ( ) d

At
to
e At I At A2 t 2 2
t
A( t )
At
1
u
(
A
B u
to
t
A( t )
1
e
u
(
A
Bu
to
x(t ) e At x(to ) t B u (to )

4.5
-3
2.5
Time (sec.)
120
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude
Continuous-time and discrete-time

domains
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
to (n D) Ts
t (n 1 D ) Ts
x[(n 1 D) Ts ] e ATs x[(n D) Ts ] Ts B u[(n D) Ts ]
3.5
4.5
-3
the discrete-time expression
2.5
Time (sec.)
121
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
RL
Vd
3.5
4.5
-3
Equivalent circuit during ton: A1

Ron
2.5
Time (sec.)
x A1 x B1 u
122
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
Ron
3.5
4.5
-3
Equivalent circuit during toff: A2

RL
2.5
Time (sec.)
x A2 x B2 u
123
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
1 if nTs t (n d n )Ts
d (t )
0 if (n d n )Ts t (n 1)Ts
d '(t ) 1 d (t )
nonlinear model
x d (t ) A1 d '(t ) A2 x d (t ) B1 d '(t ) B 2 u
3.5
4.5
-3
switching functions
2.5
Time (sec.)
124
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
dn D d n
d d d
d ' 1 d
x xx
1 if nTs t (n D)Ts
d (t )
0 if (n D)Ts t (n 1)Ts
sgn(d n D) if t (n D)Ts , (n d n )Ts
d (t )
0 otherwise
3.5
4.5
-3
small-signal model
u Vs v s
2.5
Time (sec.)
125
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
x d A1 d ' A2 x d B1 d ' B2 Vs
perturbation in the state vector
x d A1 d ' A2 x d B1 d ' B2 v s A1 A2 x B1 B2 Vs d
3.5
4.5
-3
steady-state equation
2.5
Time (sec.)
126
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude
Discrete-time model of the switching

converter
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
x A2 x B2 v s K d n Ts t n D Ts
A1 A2 x n D Ts B1 B2 Vs
x n 1 Ts e A2 D 'Ts e A2 D 'Ts x n D Ts e A2 D 'Ts K Ts d n

n 1Ts
n D Ts
A2 n 1Ts
B2 v s d
n 1 Ts , n 1 D Ts
x A1 x
x n 1 D Ts e A1 DTs e A2 D 'Ts x n D Ts e A1DTs e A2 D 'Ts K Ts d n

3.5
4.5
-3
n D Ts , n 1 Ts
2.5
Time (sec.)
127
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude
Design of a discrete control

system with complete state
feedback
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
u (n) F x(n)
x(n 1) ( A F B) x(n)
det[ z I A F B] 0
The closed-loop poles can be arbitrarily placed by choosing the

elements of F
3.5
4.5
-3
x(n 1) A x(n) B u(n)
2.5
Time (sec.)
128
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude

feedback
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
Pole selection
One way of choosing the closed-loop poles is to design a lowpass Bessel filter of the same order
The step response of a Bessel filter has no overshoot, thus it is
suitable for a voltage regulator
The desired filter can then be selected for a step response that
meets a specified settling time
Feedback gains
L PLACE ( d d P)
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
129
x 10

feedback
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
Voltage mode control

^
x n 1 Ts e
d
^
D
v ref
Vref
A1 DTs
A2 D 'Ts
x nTs e
A1 DTs
A2 D 'Ts
K Ts d n
x[(n 1) Ts ] x[nTs ] d n
e A1 DTs e A2 D 'Ts
K Ts
K ( B B )V
1
2
s
x n 1 Ts x nTs
vref F x nTs
D
x n 1 Ts
F x nTs
Vref
CL
D
v ref
Vref
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
D

F
Vref
x n 1 Ts CL x nTs
130
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Extended-state model for a

tracking regulator
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
( a,a,L2)
D/A
(VM, )
-L1
A/D
iL [ n]
0

xd [n] vc [n] d
; d 0 L L1

a
a
xa [ n]
ya L2 xa
y cx
3.5
4.5
-3
Digital tracking system with full-state feedback

Vref
2.5
Time (sec.)
L2
131
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Current mode control
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
Sensitivities of the duty cycle

^
dn
d n ^ d n ^ d n ^
x1
x2
Ip
x1
x2
I p
x1 iL
x2 vC
d n ^ d n ^ d n ^
dn
iL
vc
Ip
iL
vc
I p
dn
^
L
iL
(Vd Vc ) Ts
D ^
dn
vc
Vd Vc
^
^
L
dn
Ip
(Vd Vc ) Ts
^
1
^
d n
d
d
; 2 n ; 3 n ; and [1 2 ]
x1
x2
I p
d n 1
^
^
iL
2 ^ 3 I p

^
v c
dF
d n d CM d F
d CM
132
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
0.3
Current mode control
To: Y(1)
Amplitude
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-3
Time (sec.)
With complete state feedback

^
CM
x[(n 1) Ts ] x[nTs ] d n
I p F x nTs
^
x[(n 1) Ts ] x[nTs ] (d CM d F )
^
x n 1 Ts CM 3 F x nTs
^
x[(n 1) Ts ] x[nTs ] x[nTs ] 3 I p

^
x[(n 1) Ts ] CM x[nTs ] 3 I p
CL CM 3 F
x n 1 Ts CL x nTs
133
x 10
Step Response
From: U(1)
0.35
To: Y(1)
0.25
Amplitude
Extended-state model for a tracking

regulator
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
(a, a, L2)
D/A
-L1
(current-mode,3)
A/D
iL [n]
xd [n] vc [n]
xa [ n]
d CM
a c
0

,
L L1
a d 0
3.5
4.5
-3
Digital tracking system with full-state feedback

Vref
2.5
Time (sec.)
L2
134
x 10

Dynamic Analysis of Switching Converters

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Dynamic Analysis of Switching Converters

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Chapter 6

a) averaged buck converter.

b) averaged boost converter.

Switching converter analysis using classical control

Power switching converters

Continuous-Time Linear Models