Text Types and Text Forms

Prof. Mariana Neagu

Definition of text-type
a set of correlations between linguistic
features and communicative purpose.
this set of correlations can be established on
either a linguistic basis (Biber 1989) or a
functional basis (Longacre 1976, Beaugrande
and Dressler 1981, Werlich 1983)

Text typologies
Each author had used different parameters in his way of categorizing texts.
Jakobsons communication functions were used often as parameters:

The referential function

The aesthetic function
The emotive function
The conative function
The phatic function
The metalingual function

One of the six functions is always the dominant function in a text and usually
related to the type of text.

Longacres (1976) classification

Longacre (1976) proposes a four-fold typology based on two parameters:
(1) temporal succession
(2) agent orientation
The combination of these two parameters gives the four types of discourse:
narrative
procedural
behavioral
expository
Questions:
How can one establish the relation between linguistic features and
communicative functions?
Are actual texts found as pure types?

Beaugrande and Dresslers (1981) typology

less developed in its linguistic characterization but
provides some useful hints in terms of its organization of
knowledge across types.
Descriptive: characterized by frames, i.e. the elements of a
concept belong together but without any order
Narrative: characterized by schemata, i.e. patterns of
events and states integrated in temporal and casual
sequences.
Argumentative: characterized by plans, defined as patterns
of events and states leading to an intended goal.

Werlichs (1983) typology

derives from the correlations among the
features of a text, context, and participants.
In this way, particular linguistic features are not
only linked to a communicative purpose but
motivated by this purpose.

Werlichs (1983)textual typology

1. descriptive
2. narrative
3. expository
4. argumentative
5. instructive
- adopted and adapted by Hatim and Mason
(1990).

Bibers (1985) text types

Biber identifies text types by means of
quantitative analysis, i.e., texts in a type share
frequent use of the same set of co-occurring
linguistic features and hence reflect the same
function.

Bibers textual typology

Co-occurrence of linguistic features is discussed
in terms of variation.
Dimensions of variation:
Involved vs. informational production
Narrative vs. non-narrative concerns
Explicit vs. situation-dependent reference
Overt expression of persuasion
Abstract vs. non-abstract style

Bibers linguistic typology of texts

These dimensions of variation include these
linguistic features: tense and aspect markers,
place and time adverbials, pronouns,
questions, nominal forms, and passives.
The co-occurrence of these features was
analyzed in 481 spoken and written texts
representing 23 different genres with results
that produced his typology -> heterogenuous

Linguistic or functional typologies?

neither linguistic nor functional typologies are
inherently superior. (Martinez-Cabeza, 2002)
Linguistic textual typologies offer greater
descriptive consistency but may produce
counterintuitive classifications
Functional typologies may fail to justify
sufficiently inclusion within a type.
texts are classified by readers perceptions
that include factors alien to linguistic features

Text typologies in translation

studies
- Reiss (
- Hatim and Mason

Reiss (1977/1989) classification of

texts
-

the need to preserve the dominant function of the

text in translation
focuses on establishing a connection between text
type and the translation method.

Informative (predominant language function:

informative)
Creative (expressive function)
Operative (appelative function)
Audiomedial (films, commercials, visual and
spoken ads; + images, music, etc.)

Reiss (1977/1989) view of audiomedial text translation

With audio-medial texts (e.g. adverts) the aim
of the translation should be the production of
identical behavioural reactions (Reiss
1977/1989: 97-100). For this reason, the
adaptive method is considered the best
solution because of the equivalent effect
created among the TL readers.

Reiss intralinguistic and

extralinguistic factors in translation
intralinguistic criteria: semantic, lexical,
grammatical and stylistic features.
extra-linguistic criteria: situation, topic, time
and place, receiver and sender, and issues of
humour, irony, emotion etc, that show
affective implications.

Hatim and Masons (1990)

typology of texts
- reduce the five text types outlined by Werlich
to three. According to their dominant
communicative intention and rhetorical
purpose, text types can be grouped into:
Expository (descriptive, narrative, conceptual)
Argumentative
(through-arguments
and
counter-arguments)
Instructive (with option and without option)

The expository text-type

Descriptive(describing objects in space)
Narrative (relating events in time)
Conceptual (explaining facts or concepts).

The argumentative text-type

through-arguments (where a continuous line
of argument is followed throughout the text)
counter-arguments (in which the central
argument is preceded by a concession to an
opposing view)

The instructive text type

instruction without option (treaties, contracts
and other legal documents)
instruction with option (advertisements and
recipes)

Text Forms
proposed by Martinez-Cabeza(2002: 70)
provide guidelines that help to establish
specific correlations between purpose and
extra-linguistic context.

1. Descriptive forms
- based on the representation of phenomena in
space.
- impressionistic
descriptions
(subjective):
functional coherence is often achieved by the
first person singular point of view, while the
topical coherence is determined by the
impressions of phenomena in space.
- technical descriptions.(objective): composed in
third person and topicalization focuses on the
elements of a whole.

2. Narrative text forms

represent phenomena in time and can be
reduced to an action-recording sentence. This
representation can be done in a subjective or
objective manner.
narratives
reports
news stories.

Narratives
constitutes the most representative form of the
recording of actions and events, usually from the
point of view of subjective impressions in time.
functional coherence is established by means of a
personal point of view, either in first or third
person singular, together with past tense verbal
forms.
topical coherence is developed through the focus
on persons and events in time.

Reports
characterized by an objective frame or
reference determined by a non-personal third
person point of view.
topical coherence is achieved by the focus on
the various situational factors of events: time,
place, agents, objects, and relations.

News stories
devised to provide information that enables
the addressee to form an opinion.
range in their references to the reporters own
views: news stories focused on facts and
actions avoid them while comments, for
example, leading articles, focus on the
authors opinions

The use of hyperbole in narration

A basic element
Functions of hyperbole: evaluation, emphasis,
interest intensification, story vividness,
humour.

3. Expository text forms

exhibit the constituent elements of abstract
concepts.
can be analytic, synthetic or a combination of
both.
tend to be explanatory (have a didactic aim)
variants include: the expository essay,
definition, summary.

Expository essays
- the encoder presents an explanation of
concepts, usually from a subjective point of
view.
- functional coherence is achieved through the
first person singular or plural point of view, or
the non-personal third person point of view.
- topical coherence depends on the particular
field of knowledge where the object of the
essay is included.

Definitions and summaries

definitions
= specific forms of analytic
expositions;
typically
represented
by
encyclopedic entries.
summaries = specific forms of synthetic
expositions; characterized by a high level of
abstraction and their structuring depends on
the original text

4. Argumentative text forms

focus on the validity of relations among
concepts. The producer states a problem as to
the classification of a given fact according to
systems of thought.
subjective (comment): e. g. leading articles,
objective (scientific argumentation).
In both cases the sequence that establishes
cohesion and completion are inductive,
deductive or dialectical.

Advertisements: a combination of
expository and argumentative text
forms

Advertising effectiveness is increased through

the use of figurative language.
Figures of speech make ads succinct, accurate
and vivid and provide rich imagination and
plentiful associations
Alliteration, rhyme, antithesis, parallelism,
repetition, simile, metaphor, metonymy,
puns, personification, hyperbole.

5. Instructive text forms (I)

communicate about the planning of future
behavior either of the encoder or the decoder.
- instructions: the point of view is personal and
the encoder usually adopts the first or second
person point of view depending on whether
instructions are directed to the sender or the
receiver.
- directions, rules and regulations stem from an
impersonal authority.

Instructive text forms (II)

functional coherence is achieved through the
third person point of view.
topical coherence is achieved by reference to
physical phenomena in the case of practical
instructions and concepts and relations in
rules and regulations.

Conclusions
Text forms are posited as intermediate between
types and genres: text type -> text form -> genre
e.g. the instructive text type includes the form
instructions which in turn, has variants such as
recipes.
Combinations of forms: very frequent and
necessary to account for the fact that actual texts
rarely display the whole set of features
established for the abstract category.

References (I)
Beaugrande, Robert de and WolfgangDressler,.
1981. Introduction to text linguistics. London
and New York : Longman.
Biber, D. 1989. A typology of English texts. In
Linguistics, 27: 3-43 (pages3-11)
Hatim Basil and Ian Mason. 1990. Discourse
and the Translator. London and New York:
Longman.

References (II)
Longacre, R.E. 1976. An Anatomy of Speech
Notions. Lisser: de Ridder.
Martin-Cabeza, M.A. 2002. The study of
language beyond sentence. From text
grammar to discourse analysis. Granada:
Comares.
Werlich, Egon. 1983. A Text Grammar of
English. Heidelberg: Quelle and Meyer.