Difraksi Sinar-X

Philip MPD System

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

X-Rays are part of the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation

occupying the region between the ultraviolet and gamma rays.
The full spectrum is shown graphically and in tabular format
below:

Tube XRD

Bohr atomic model

The binding energy of an electron in an atom is

established mainly by determining the incident. It
is for this reason that the term absorption edge is
very often found in literature:
Energy level = binding energy = absorption edge
The individual shells are labeled with the letters K,
L, M, N,..., the innermost shell being the K-shell,
the second innermost the L-shell etc. The K-shell
is occupied by 2 electrons. The L-shell has three 3
levels and can contain up to 8 electrons. The Mshell has five sub-levels and can contain up to 18
electrons.

Produksi Sinar-x

eV h m ax

SWL m in

m ax

hc

eV

12.40 x103
SWL
V
I cont.spectrum AiZV m

Tube berada dalam keadaan vakum, sampel

target (katoda) yang digunakan biasanya Cu, W,
Fe

Produksi Sinar-x

Continuous Radiation

X-rays are produced whenever matter is irradiated with

a beam of high-energy charged particles or photons.
Interactions that occur between the beam (i.e.,
electrons) and target will result in a loss of energy. Since
energy must be conserved, the energy loss results in the
release of x-ray photons of energy (wavelength) equal
to the energy loss. This process generates a broad band
of continuous radiation (a.k.a. bremsstrahlung or white
radiation). This (along with the higher-intensity
characteristic lines) is shown in the figure below (for a
Cu target at a variety of kV) as the low-intensity
spectrum

Generation of Characteristic X-rays

The simplified discussion below uses Cu as an example. The

same process applies to all of the anodes listed in Table above.
The quantum physics related to the generation of x-rays is, in
reality, much more complicated, but this simplified discussion
works for our purposes. See Jenkins and Snyder (1997), Nuffield
(1966) or any XRD text for a more rigorous If a high-energy
electron or photon interacts with electrons in the target anode
atoms such that an inner orbital electron is displaced, an electron
from a lower energy shell will jump to replace the displaced
higher-energy electron. This results in the generation of an x-ray
photon of quantum energy equal to that of the transition. The
relationship between the energy of this x-ray and its wavelength is
described by equation above. This is shown schematically in the
diagram at left. An incoming electron displaces a K-shell electron.
If an L shell electron moves to replace it, a K x-ray is produced.
If an M-shell electron moves to replace it, a K x-ray is produced.

Making Monochromatic X-rays

There are a number of ways that x-rays out of the tube
can be modified such that the radiation detected after
diffraction is only K. Some of these methods include:
Use of filter
Use of proportional detector and pulse height selection
Use of a Si(Li) solid-state detector
Use of a diffracted- or primary-beam monochromator

Produksi sinar-x

Ringkasan Teori Difraksi

X-ray
Tube

Diffraction from crystals

Detector
Reflected radiation

Incident radiation

1
2

Z
Y

Transmitted radiation

Reflected radiation

Incident radiation

1
2

Z
Y

Transmitted radiation

Beam 2 lags beam 1 by XYZ = 2d sin

so

2d sin = n

Braggs Law

e.g. X-rays with wavelength 1.54 are reflected from

planes with d=1.2. Calculate the Bragg angle, , for
constructive interference.
= 1.54 x 10-10 m,

2d sin n
n
sin
2d
1

d = 1.2 x 10-10 m, =?
n=1 : = 39.9

n=2 : X

(n/2d)>1

2d sin = n
We normally set n=1 and adjust Miller indices, to give
2dhkl sin =

Example of equivalence of the two forms of Braggs law:

Calculate for =1.54 , cubic crystal, a=5
2d sin = n
(1 0 0) reflection, d=5
n=1, =8.86o
n=2, =17.93o
n=3, =27.52o
n=4, =38.02o
n=5, =50.35o
n=6, =67.52o
no reflection for n7

(2 0 0) reflection, d=2.5

n=1,

=17.93o

n=2,

=38.02o

n=3, =67.52o
no reflection for n4

Use Braggs law and the d-spacing equation

to solve a wide variety of problems

2d sin = n
or

2dhkl sin =
2

1 h k l
2
2
2
2
d
a
b c

Combining Bragg and d-spacing equation

X-rays with wavelength 1.54 are reflected from the
(1 1 0) planes of a cubic crystal with unit cell a = 6 .
Calculate the Bragg angle, , for all orders of reflection, n.

1 h k l

2
d
a2
2

d 2 18

11 0

0.056
2
6

d = 4.24

d = 4.24

n
sin
2d
1

n=1:

= 10.46

= (1 1 0)

n=2:

= 21.30

= (2 2 0)

n=3:

= 33.01

= (3 3 0)

n=4:

= 46.59

= (4 4 0)

n=5:

= 65.23

= (5 5 0)
2dhkl sin =

Summary
We can imagine planes within a crystal

Each set of planes is uniquely identified by its

Miller index (h k l)
We can calculate the separation, d, for each set
of planes (h k l)
Crystals diffract radiation of a similar order of
wavelength to the interatomic spacings

We model this diffraction by considering the

reflection of radiation from planes - Braggs Law

Soal latihan
1. Berkas sinar-x yang tidak diketahui panjang
gelombangnya mengenai tembaga dengan
konstanta kisi a = 0,3615 nm. Sudut difraksi 43,4.
Penentuan tersendiri membuktikan bahwa garis
difraksi adalah garis n=1 untuk d111
a). Tentukan panjang gelombang sinar-x
b). Berkas sinar-x yang sama digunakan untuk
analisis tungsten dengan R = 0,1367 nm. Berapa
sudut difraksi untuk garis difraksi tingkat dua d010

Soal latihan
2. Konstanta kisi sel satuan aluminium adalah 0,4049.
(a). Tentukan d220 (b). d111 (c). d200
3. Nikel berbentuk kubik pemusatan sisi dengan jari-jari
atom 0,1246 nm. (a). Tentukan jarak d200, (b) jarak
d220, (c). Jarak d111
4. Jarak antar bidang (110) suatu logam kubik
pemusatan ruang adalah 0,203 nm. (a). Tentukan sel
satuan, (b). Jari-jari atom, (c). Jenis logam