CASTING DEFECTS

DR.ANUP VYAS
M.D.S.(PROSTHODONTICS)
Professor
Deptt.of Prosthodontics
Sri Aurobindo College of Dentistry
Indore (M.P.)

 The precision casting should have the

exact shape, size, correct fitting,
smooth surface and no internal or
external flaws, affecting the
properties.
There are many chance of
introduction of many casting defects
in various steps, unless suitable
precautions are carefully observed.

 If proper procedure is not followed the casting

may have some defects.The defects in
casting can be avoided by strict observance
of the procedure governed by certain
fundamental rules & principles

CLASSIFICATION OF
CASTING DEFECTS
(BY:- COOMBE)
1.DISTORTION
2.SURFACE ROUGHNESS & IRREGULARITIES
3.POROSITY
4.INCOMPLETE CASTING & MISSING DETAILS
5.DISCOLOURATION DUE TO SULPHUR
COMPOUNDS

CASTING DEFECTS
Defects in casting can be classified as:
1. DISTORTION
2. SURFACE ROUGHNESS &
IRREGULARITIES
3. POROSITY
4. DISCOLOURATION
5. INCOMPLETE CASTING OR MISSING
DETAIL

1.DISTORTION
1. Margins: Probability highest in thinner
portions of pattern.
a. Wax Deformation:
improper removal or handling of pattern.
b. Premature Quenching:
wait until button loses red color.
c. Investment Expansion/Contraction:

1. Distortion
Change of shape or size, both
cause misfit
Change of shape occurs,- by distortions of wax pattern during careless
removal from the die (apply lubricant),
too much vibration during investment,
too thick investing,
such as too much longitudinal expansion ( too long
sprue and casting ring) also can cause distortion
Remedy : Leaving about 3 mm gap, free of ring
liner at the ends, can restrict this expansion.

Distortion
Change of shape or size,
both cause misfit
Change of size occurs due to
under or over compensation of casting
shrinkages
REMEDY -- can be controlled by correct
setting and thermal expansions

Distortion:
Causes Distortion of wax pattern
Due to uneven movement of the walls of wax
pattern when investment is setting. The gingival
margins are forced apart by the mold expansion,
whereas the solid occlusal bar of wax resists
expansion during the early stage of setting.
Solutions Proper manipulation of wax & handling of the
pattern.

Wax-up of Full Crown

Complete wax-up of full crown ready for spruing.

Patterns on Sprue
Wax-up on sprues (channel for metal to
flow into ring) ready for investing.

1.DISTORTION
Distortion of the casting is probably related to the
distortion of the wax pattern.
CAUSE:-Due to hardening or hygroscopic expansion of
investment.
-Due to improper manipulation.
AVOIDED BY:-Manipulation of wax at high temperature.
-Investing pattern within 1hr after finishing.
-If storage is necessary store in refrigerator.

1.DISTORTION

2.SURFACE ROUGHNESS

Surface roughness of the casting leads to inaccurate

surface details of the casting thus additional finishing
& polishing is required.

CAUSES OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS

(A).AIR BUBBLE:(B).WATER FILMS:(C).RAPID HEATING:(D).PROLONGED HEATING:(F).WATER/POWDER RATIO:(G).CASTING PRESSURE:

(H).COMPOSITION OF INVESTMENT
(I).FOREIGN BODIES:-

2.SURFACE ROUGHNESS

Surface Defects

(A).AIR BUBBLE: Air bubble introduced in the pattern during

investing leads to formation of nodules on
casting.
.Avoided by:Proper mixing of the investment
-vibration of mix or by vaccum mixing
-Application of wetting agent.

(B).WATER FILMS: Wax is repellent to water & if the investment

become separated from wax pattern in some
manner a water film may form irregularity over
the surface these appears as veins or ridges on
the casting.
Avoided by: -Application of wetting agent.
-Proper w/p ratio

(C).RAPID HEATING: It leads to cracks in the investment which results

in fins & spines on the casting.
Avoided by: Heat the ring gradually to 700 degrees in atleast
1hr.

(D).PROLONGED HEATING:It causes disintegration of the investment & the

walls of the mould are roughened.
Avoided by:The mould should be heated to the casting
temperature.
Casting should be done immediately.

(E).UNDERHEATING: It causes incomplete elimination of wax residue

which leads to voids & porosity in the casting.
AVOIDED BY: Proper heating till complete elimination of wax.

(F).WATER/POWDER RATIO: The higher the water powder ratio rougher will
be the casting.
lower w/p ratio causes unmanageably thick
investment which cant be properly applied to
the pattern.
Avoided by: Using proper w/p ratio.

(G).CASTING PRESSURE: High casting pressure produce rough surface on

the casting.
Avoided by: Using 15 lbs/sq inch of air pressure or 3 to 4 turn
of centrifugal casting machine.

(H).COMPOSITION OF
INVESTMENT
ratio of binder to the quartz influences the
texture of casting.
Avoided by Proper ratio of quartz & binder.

(I).FOREIGN BODIES: Contamination of investment with foreign

bodies results into surface roughness or
surface voids.

Poor Surface finish:

Causes Air bubbles on the pattern
Water films causing ridges & veins on the surface.
Too rapid heating resulting in fins or spines
Underheating causing incomplete elimination of wax
Inappropriate water/powder ratio
Prolonged heating
Temperature of alloy too high
Casting pressure too high
Foreign bodies
Impact of molten alloy
Pattern position

Solutions Use of Vacuum Investing Technique

Vibrate before & after mixing
Use a wetting agent to reduce surface tension of wax
pattern.
Air dry the wetting agent as excess water will dilute
investment, causing irregularities
The mold should be heated gradually
Heat the ring for sufficient period of time so that the
carbonaceous residue is removed
Water/powder ratio should be accurate
Gypsum bonded investments should never be heated
above 700C
Alloys submitted to vacuum casting showed decreased
surface roughness, compared to alloys submitted to
acetylene- oxygen flame casting.
Journal of Prosthetic dentistry, 2004, vol 92, 274-

Fins
These are feather like thin extensions in the
alloy casting surfaces, produced as the liquid
enters the cracks formed in the fractured
investment .

Fins

CAUSES
Weak investment
High water powder ratio used
Improper mixing and investing method
Rapid temperature rise during wax burnout.
Prolonged heating of investing
Overheating of investment
To high casting force
Remedies are: reduce the number of turns to
casting machine arms, or decrease thickness and
increase the length of the sprue etc. Use precautions
during wax burn out.

3.POROSITY
Porosity may be
internal
or

external.

-external porosity causes

discolouration of casting.
-internal porosity weakens the casting.
Severe porosity at the tooth restoration
junction can cause secondary caries.

Porosity:
Porosity of the casting can be spread
within the casting and on its surface. The
surface porosity adds to surface
roughness, but can also be a sing of the
internal porosity. The internal porosity
could weaken the casting, may cause
discoloration if spread to the surface and
in extreme cases could lead to a leakage.

 CLASSIFICATION OF POROSITY
(BY PHILLIPS)
1.caused by solidification shrinkage
(a).Localized shrinkage porosity
(b).Suck back porosity
(c).Microporosity
2.caused by gas
(a).Pin hole porosity
(b).gas inclusion
(c).Subsurface porosity
3.caused by air trapped in mould
-back pressure porosity

Classification of porosities (According to Phillips):

Porosities

Solidification
Defects

Localized
Shrinkage

Microporosity

Trapped gases

Pinhole
Porosity

Residual Air

Gas
Inclusions

Subsurface
Porosity
Phillips; Science of dental material ; 10th

LOCALIZED SHRINKAGE
It is caused by the premature termination of the
flow of molten metal during solidification.These
are large irregular voids usually found near the
sprue casting junction.It is also known as
shrink spot porosity.
Avoided by:Using sprue of correct thickness.
Attach the sprue to the thickest portion of wax
pattern.
Flaring the sprue at the point of attachment or
placing reservoir closed to the wax pattern.

Solidification shrinkage
porosities
Almost all liquids contract during
solidification as the atoms arrange in
certain order, more closely.

Localized Shrinkage Porosity

Causes:
Generally caused by incomplete feeding of
molten metal during solidification.If the sprue is
not properly designed and implemented then it
may solidify before the feeding is complete thus
preventing a continuous supply of molten alloy.
This type of defect usually occurs close to the
sprue-casting junction.
Solutions:
Ryge et al recommended the use of a sprue
diameter larger than the thickest cross section of
the casting.
Journal of dental rest.; Jan 1981; vol 60; no1; page 5967

Solution: to establish a communication

between the invested work and the outside

Lost-head
(or reservoire)

Building of a
sprue-former
on the pattern

Cooling
Casting

Cooling
Casting

Localized shrinkage porosity:

Large irregular void is formed close to the sprue
attachment at the bulkiest part.
As the liquid continues solidification from the
cooler mould walls,
if the sprue is blocked by precipitation, there will
be a deficiency of liquid in the sprue of
thickness more than the thickest portion of the
pattern, such that the last portion of liquid,
solidifying is in contact with liquid in reservoir,
which supplies extra liquid required.

SUCK BACK POROSITY

It is a variation of shrink spot porosity.
This is an external void usually seen in the inside of a
crown opposite the sprue.A hot spot is created by the
hot metal impinging on the mould wall near the sprue.
The hot spot causes this region to freeze last, since the
sprue has already solidified no more molten material is
available & the resulting shrinkage causes a peculiar
type shrinkage called suck back porosity.
AVOIDED BY:By reducing the temperature difference between the
mould and the molten allow.

HOT SPOT:Localized shrinkage porosity may result

from the formation of HOT SPOT when
metal impinges on the mold surface so
that here the metal remains molten while it
solidifies everywhere else. This hot spot
causes the local region to freeze last and
result in SUCK BACK POROSITY.

Solutions:
Flare the point of sprue attachment
Proper placement of sprue
Do not use excessively long sprue
Use a reservoir
Reduce the mold-melt temperature
differential (i.e. lower the casting
temperature by about 30C).

Macroporosity:
Causes-

Primarily a shrinkage porosity

The portion of a cylindrical casting which
solidifies last is the low pressure side of the
liquid metal close to the free surface of the
button, therefore macroporosity always appears
in this portion of casting.
Solution Reduce by providing a reservoir contiguous or
close to the low pressure end of the liquid metal
It may be affected by the closeness of the
individual units in a multiple unit casting.
Phillips; Science of dental material ; 10th edition

Journal of dental restoration; Jan 1981;vol 60; no. 1;page 59-67

MICROPOROSITY

These are fine irregular voids

within the casting. It is seen
when the casting freezes too
rapidly.
Rapid solidification occurs when
mould or casting temperature
is too low.

Micro porosity due to poor feeding

of the molten metal.

Trapped Gases
1. Pinhole Porosity
2. Gas Inclusion Porosity

Both these porosities are related to the

entrapment of gas during solidification.
Both are characterized by a spherical
contour.
Gas inclusion porosities are much higher
than pinhole porosities.

PIN HOLE POROSITY

Many metals dissolve gases when molten.
Upon solidification the dissolved gases are
expelled
causing tiny voids.
Eg.Pt & Pd absorb hydrogen
Cu & Ag dissolve oxygen.

Gas inclusion porosity

Gas inclusion porosities are also spherical voids but
larger than the pin hole type.They may be due to
dissolved gases,but are more likely due to gases
carried in or trapped by molten metal.

Subsurface porosity
Caused due to simultaneous nucleation of solid
grains & gas bubbles at the first moment that the
alloys freeze at the mould walls.

SUBSURFACE POROSITY
CauseSimultaneous nucleation of solid grains and gas bubbles
at the first moment that the metal freezes at the mold
walls
Solution Diminished by controlling the rate at which the molten
metal enters the mold
Ryge et al reported that subsurface & microporosities
are reduced by the use of a sufficiently long sprue & a
melt temperature of 100C-150C above the melting
point of alloy.
According to Leinfelder et al reported that long sprues
are preferable for thick castings while short sprues are
beneficial for thin castings i.e. the sprue design should
be related to the surface area-to-volume ratio of
castings.

ENTRAPPED AIR POROSITY

Referred to as Back Pressure porosity.
Can produce large concave depression.
CausesInability of the air in the mold to escape through
the pores in the investment or by the pressure
gradient that displaces the air pocket toward the
end of the investment via the molten sprue &
button.

Journal of dental rest.; Jan 1981; vol 60; no1; page 59-67

 Back pressure porosity

This type of porosity can result in concave
depression.
This is caused by the inability of the air in
the mould to escape through the pours in
the investment or by pressure gradient that
displace the air pocket towards the end of
the investment.
AVOIDED BY:-

Using adequate casting force.

Use investment of adequate porosity.
Place pattern not more than 6 to 8mm
away from the end of ring.
Providing vents in large castings.

Back pressure porosity

Solution Proper burnout
An adequate mold & casting temperature.
A sufficiently high casting pressure
Proper liquid : powder ratio.
The thickness of investment between the tip of the
pattern and the end of the ring should not be greater
than 6mm.
Srickland & Sturdevant suggested that sprue design
variables have no effect on these porosities; venting,
high melt temperatures, proper positioning of the
pattern in the ring, choice of investment & the use of
reservoir can assist in reducing or eliminating the back
pressure porosities.

Vacuum mixing

Mechanical mixing under vacuum removes

air bubbles created during mixingm

4.INCOMPLETE CASTING
An incomplete casting may result when:-

1.Insufficient alloy used.

2.Alloy not able to enter thin parts of mould.
3.When mould is not heated to casting
temperature.
4.Premature solidification of alloys.

 5.Sprue are blocked with foreign bodies.

6.Back pressure due to gases in mould
cavity.

7.Low casting pressure.

8.Alloy not sufficiently molten or fluid.

4.INCOMPLETE CASTING

4.INCOMPLETE CASTING
1. Internal Porosity: due to improper solidification.

a. Improper Spruing :
Diameter too small or too long
b. Low Temperature:
Investment or metal too cold.
c. Included Gases:
Contaminated gold or oxidized old gold.
d. Occluded Gases:
Improper burnout of pattern.

4.INCOMPLETE CASTING
2. Incomplete External Shape:
a. Insufficient casting pressure.

b. Excessive back pressure from

investment
c. Suck bak into sprue.

DISCOLOURATION DUE TO
SULPHUR COMPOUNDS

Overheating the investment above 700

degree causes it to decompose liberating
sulphur or sulphur compounds.
They readily combines with the metal in
gold alloy forming a sulphide film.
This gives a dark casting which cant be
cleaned by pickling.

TITANIUM
Titanium is a light, highly biocompatible material
introduced in to the casting appliances such as
crowns and bridges. R.P.D. frame works, metal
ceramics, implants and orthodontic wires.
Commercially pure titanium Cp Ti has traces of
certain impurities like 02, N, H2, Fe, and C and
accordingly it is graded as No. I , II, III, IV and
V, with the tensile strengths increasing from
240 M Pa to 515 M Pa.

TITANIUM---Properties
High biocompatibility, corrosion resistance
High oxygen affinity forms a very thin 10
micron film of Ti O2
Very low density----4.51 gm/ c.c.
Moderate tensile strength depending up on the
allotropic- martensite and austenite (- Ti and
- TI) phase distributions.
Moderate stiffness or modulus of elasticity.
Ti has more flexibility (E = 71,000 MPa)

TITANIUM---Properties
Fusion temperature is very high about
1668 C ( Tungsten arc or induction melting is
used)

Undergoes allotropic changes from HCP- Ti)

martensitic form when heated above 883C
to BCC [- Ti], complex austenitic form.

Allotropic forms- microstructure

At ordinary temperatures - Ti has HCP structure.
Above its TTR (transition temperature range) of
883 C, it is transformed in to complex Ti of BCC
structure.
The changes are also reversible, on cooling.
Titanium and forms have different mechanical
properties.
In general the properties of cast Ti depend on the
presence of various phases. Equated grain
structures and grain sizes, which also depends on
the rate of cooling.

Alloys of titanium
By adding small amounts of other metals it is
possible to control the amounts of and Phases,
for obtaining desired properties at ordinary
temperatures. Vanadium, molybdenum and
tantalum, are phase stabilises and Al, C, O, N
are phase stabilizers. Accordingly - - phase
formation temperature to low values like Ni, in
stainless steel).
+ variety has mechanical properties better suited
for casting purpose. Where as b phase varieties are
more suitable for orthodontic wires.

Ti alloys for casting

Ti- Pd, Ti- Cu- Ni, Ti-V, Ti-Co etc, alloys are in the
experimental stages. The titanium alloy which has
been successfully used for casting dental appliances
is Ti 6AL- 4V (T.A.V.) ALLOY.
Ti- 6 AL 4V alloy
When this cast alloy is subject to heat treatment by
heating to about 700 C and quenching, equiaxed
spherical grains are formed. Slow cooling from b
phase produce + lamellar structures,
This alloy has very high fatigue strength 860- 950
MPa.

Problems in casting of Titanium

and its alloys
Titanium is becoming the material of choice for casting all
metal and metal- ceramic appliances except for the various
problem faced in the casting procedures.
Choice of investment materials: Titanium has very high
melting temperature and oxygen sensitivity Titanium alloys
get contaminated with oxygen, if they come in to contat with
Si O2 refractory material at the high temperatures as TiO
CAN REDUCE Sio2- Speical refactory materials, Al2O3,Zr
and their combinations developed in Japan, with phosphate
bonding are tobe used.
Melting of alloy : Electric tungsten are or induction melting
methods are used in vacuum or intert argon gas
atmosphere.

Problems in casting of Titanium

and its alloys
Casting machine: Due to very low density of the
alloy ( about 4.5 gm/cc), the low centrifugal force
(m. V2/R = Volume x density x V2/R ) becomes
very inadequate to throw the liquid in to the mould.
The casting machine is modified by adding
compression as well as vacuum suction
techniques.
The surface of titanium alloy casting becomes very
hard ( formation of martensite - case and special
instrument and techniques are used for finishing
work.
These difficulties are being slowly tackled and the
alloy becomes popular.

CASTING DEFECTS
Defects in casting can be classified as:
1. DISTORTION
2. SURFACE ROUGHNESS &
IRREGULARITIES
3. POROSITY
4. DISCOLOURATION
5. INCOMPLETE CASTING OR MISSING
DETAIL

Distortion:
Causes Distortion of wax pattern
Due to uneven movement of the walls of wax
pattern when investment is setting. The gingival
margins are forced apart by the mold expansion,
whereas the solid occlusal bar of wax resists
expansion during the early stage of setting.
Solutions Proper manipulation of wax & handling of the
pattern.

Poor Surface finish:

Causes Air bubbles on the pattern
Water films causing ridges & veins on the surface.
Too rapid heating resulting in fins or spines
Underheating causing incomplete elimination of wax
Inappropriate water/powder ratio
Prolonged heating
Temperature of alloy too high
Casting pressure too high
Foreign bodies
Impact of molten alloy
Pattern position

Solutions Use of Vacuum Investing Technique

Vibrate before & after mixing
Use a wetting agent to reduce surface tension of wax
pattern.
Air dry the wetting agent as excess water will dilute
investment, causing irregularities
The mold should be heated gradually
Heat the ring for sufficient period of time so that the
carbonaceous residue is removed
Water/powder ratio should be accurate
Gypsum bonded investments should never be heated
above 700C
Alloys submitted to vacuum casting showed decreased
surface roughness, compared to alloys submitted to
acetylene- oxygen flame casting.
Journal of Prosthetic dentistry, 2004, vol 92, 274-

Porosity:
Porosity of the casting can be spread
within the casting and on its surface. The
surface porosity adds to surface
roughness, but can also be a sing of the
internal porosity. The internal porosity
could weaken the casting, may cause
discoloration if spread to the surface and
in extreme cases could lead to a leakage.

Classification of porosities (According to Phillips):

Porosities

Solidification
Defects

Localized
Shrinkage

Microporosity

Trapped gases

Pinhole
Porosity

Residual Air

Gas
Inclusions

Subsurface
Porosity
Phillips; Science of dental material ; 10th

Localized Shrinkage Porosity

Causes:
Generally caused by incomplete feeding of
molten metal during solidification.If the sprue is
not properly designed and implemented then it
may solidify before the feeding is complete thus
preventing a continuous supply of molten alloy.
This type of defect usually occurs close to the
sprue-casting junction.
Solutions:
Ryge et al recommended the use of a sprue
diameter larger than the thickest cross section of
the casting.
Journal of dental rest.; Jan 1981; vol 60; no1; page 5967

Macroporosity:
Causes-

Primarily a shrinkage porosity

The portion of a cylindrical casting which
solidifies last is the low pressure side of the
liquid metal close to the free surface of the
button, therefore macroporosity always appears
in this portion of casting.
Solution Reduce by providing a reservoir contiguous or
close to the low pressure end of the liquid metal
It may be affected by the closeness of the
individual units in a multiple unit casting.
Phillips; Science of dental material ; 10th edition

Journal of dental restoration; Jan 1981;vol 60; no. 1;page 59-67

HOT SPOT:Localized shrinkage porosity may result

from the formation of HOT SPOT when
metal impinges on the mold surface so
that here the metal remains molten while it
solidifies everywhere else. This hot spot
causes the local region to freeze last and
result in SUCK BACK POROSITY.

Solutions:
Flare the point of sprue attachment
Proper placement of sprue
Do not use excessively long sprue
Use a reservoir
Reduce the mold-melt temperature
differential (i.e. lower the casting
temperature by about 30C).

Microporosity:

Microporosity is also caused by

solidification shrinkage, but generally
happens in fine grain alloys when the
solidification is too rapid for the microvoids
to segregate. This in turn is caused the
mould or casting temperature being too
low.

Trapped Gases
1. Pinhole Porosity
2. Gas Inclusion Porosity

Both these porosities are related to the

entrapment of gas during solidification.
Both are characterized by a spherical
contour.
Gas inclusion porosities are much higher
than pinhole porosities.

SUBSURFACE POROSITY
CauseSimultaneous nucleation of solid grains and gas bubbles
at the first moment that the metal freezes at the mold
walls
Solution Diminished by controlling the rate at which the molten
metal enters the mold
Ryge et al reported that subsurface & microporosities
are reduced by the use of a sufficiently long sprue & a
melt temperature of 100C-150C above the melting
point of alloy.
According to Leinfelder et al reported that long sprues
are preferable for thick castings while short sprues are
beneficial for thin castings i.e. the sprue design should
be related to the surface area-to-volume ratio of
castings.

ENTRAPPED AIR POROSITY

Referred to as Back Pressure porosity.
Can produce large concave depression.
CausesInability of the air in the mold to escape through
the pores in the investment or by the pressure
gradient that displaces the air pocket toward the
end of the investment via the molten sprue &
button.

Journal of dental rest.; Jan 1981; vol 60; no1; page 59-67

Solution Proper burnout

An adequate mold & casting temperature.
A sufficiently high casting pressure
Proper liquid : powder ratio.
The thickness of investment between the tip of the
pattern and the end of the ring should not be greater
than 6mm.
Srickland & Sturdevant suggested that sprue design
variables have no effect on these porosities; venting,
high melt temperatures, proper positioning of the pattern
in the ring, choice of investment & the use of reservoir
can assist in reducing or eliminating the back pressure
porosities.
Journal of dental rest.; Jan 1981; vol 60; no1; page
59-67

INCOMPLETE CASTINGS

Causes Inadequate spruing ( sprue former too small)

Alloy not hot enough
Incomplete elimination of wax residues from the mold
Mold too cold
Ingate obstructed
Insufficient casting force

Solutions Use proper size of sprue former

Casting temperature should be higher than
the liquidus temperature of alloy
Ensure that no debris blocks the ingate
Use adequate amount of force for casting

DISCOLOURATION
Causes Sulphur contamination of casting causing black
castings
Contamination with copper during pickling
Contamination with mercury
Solution Avoid overheating of investment
Avoid use of torch flame as it contains sulphur
Avoid use of steel tongs to hold casting during
pickling
Castings should never be placed with amalgam
dies or kept on a table where amalgam scrap is
present

References
Phillips; Science of dental materials; 10th
edition.
Journal of American Dental Association,
Leinfelder ;1997
Journal of American Dental Association: 1984
Journal of Dental Restoration; Jan 1981; vol 60
Journal of American Dental Association; 1993
Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry; 1989
Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry; 2004

Microporosity:

Microporosity is also caused by

solidification shrinkage, but generally
happens in fine grain alloys when the
solidification is too rapid for the microvoids
to segregate. This in turn is caused the
mould or casting temperature being too
low.