Week 4 B Chapter 14 Radiographic

Film
Remnant Radiation: the x-rays that
interact with the x-ray film.
Few of the original x-rays actually make
the image. The remnant radiation is the
image forming radiation that passes
completely through the patient.

Types of X-ray
A- X-rays scatter by
Compton interactions
B- x-rays absorbed by
photoelectric
absorption
C- X-rays that exit the
patient without
interaction.

Remnant Radiation
The beam started as a relatively uniform
intensity as it exited the tube.
Upon striking the patient, the beam is
attenuated by the patient; some were
absorbed, others are scattered.
Those that actually hit the film are referred
to as the useful or remnant radiation.

Remnant Radiation
The remnant radiation consists of x-rays
scattered away from the receptor and the
useful beam.
The film is sandwiched between
radiographic intensifying screens in a
protective cassette.

Intensifying Screens & Film

The intensifying screens change the xrays into visible light. The visible light
exposes the radiographic film.
Radiographic film is similar in construction
and characteristics to photographic film.
Its spectral response is different from
photographic film but is mechanism of
operation is the same.

Film Construction
Radiographic Film
has two basic parts.
Base
Emulsion
Most film has two
layers of emulsion so
it is referred to as
Double Emulsion Film

Film Construction
An adhesive layer
attaches the emulsion
to the base.
The emulsion is
enclosed in a
protective layer or
overcoat.

Radiographic Film Base

Initially x-ray were taken on glass plates.
In 1918 cellulose nitrate bases film
replaced glass due to WWI and a shortage
of glass. Cellulose Nitrate was flammable
so x-ray film was a fire hazard. Several
severe hospital fire were caused by the xray film.

Radiographic Film Base

1920 Cellulose triacetate
or safety base was
introduced. Not as
flammable.
Polyester base replaced
Cellulose Triacetate in the
1960s. Still used today. It
is semi-rigid and about
150 to 300 m thick.

Emulsion
The emulsion is the heart of the film. The
x-rays or light from the intensifying
screens interact with the emulsion and
transfer information to the film
The emulsion consists or a very
homogeneous mixture of gelatin and silver
halide crystals about 3 to 5 m thick.

Gelatin
The gelatin is clear so it transmits the light
to the silver halide crystals.
It is porous so the processing chemicals
can penetrate to the silver halide crystals.
The primary function of the gelatin is to
provide a support medium for the silver
halide crystals by holding them in place.

Silver Halide Crystals

98% Silver Bromide
2% Silver Iodide
Tabular shape used
most commonly for
general radiography.
About 1m thick for
screen film exposure.

Silver Halide Crystals

The differences in speed, contrast and
resolution depend upon the process by
which the silver halide crystals are
manufactured and by the mixture of these
crystals into the gelatin.
Size and concentration of crystals have a
primary influence on speed.

Manufacture
The manufacturers closely guard the
mixture they use to manufacture their film.
Manufacture is in total darkness with
protection for radiation. From the time that
the emulsion ingredients are brought
together until the film is packaged, no light
is present.

The Latent Image

The latent image is the invisible change in
the silver halide crystals.
The interaction between the photons and
the silver halide crystals produces the
latent image or manifest image.
This interaction is sometimes referred to
as the photographic effect.

The Latent Image

This process is not well understood and is
the subject of considerable research.
The following is the Gurney-Mott theory.

Producing the Latent Image

A Radiation interaction
releases electrons.
B Electrons migrate to
the sensitivity center.
C At the sensitivity
center, atomic silver is
formed by attracting
an interstitial silver
ion.

Producing the Latent Image

D The process is
repeated many times
resulting in the build
up of silver atoms.
E The remaining silver
halide is converted to
silver during
processing.

Producing the Latent Image

F The resulting silver
grain is formed.
Silver halide that is
not irradiated remain
inactive. The
irradiated and nonirradiated silver halide
produces the latent
image.

Types of X-ray Film

Two main types:
Screen film used with intensifying screens.
Single emulsion- emulsion on one side of
base.
Double emulsion used with two screens.

Direct exposure film or non-screen film.

Special purpose: Duplication, Cine, Dental

Standard Screen-Film Sizes

English Units
8 x 10
10 x 12
11 x 14
7 x 17
14 x 17
14 x 36

SI Units
20 x 25
24 x 30
30 x 35
18 x 43
35 x 43

Screen Film Factors

Main factors to be considered when
selecting film
Contrast & Speed
Crossover
Spectral matching
Reciprocity Law
Safelights

Contrast
Most manufacturers offer multiple
contrast levels in their film lines.
High contrast film has low latitude
Medium contrast has medium latitude
Low contrast has high latitude

High contrast has small uniform grains

Low contrast has larger grains and wide
range in size.

Speed
The size and shape of the silver halide
crystals are the main factors that
determine speed.
Faster speed films are almost always
double emulsion.
Light spectrum from screens must match
to achieve optimum speed.

Crossover
Crossover is the
exposure of an
emulsion by light from
the opposite-side
radiographic
intensifying screen.
Modern tabular grain
film with a dye or
crossover control layer
has reduced crossover.

Spectral Matching
The most important consideration in
selecting screen film is spectral absorption
matching.
The material in the screens will determine
the color of light emitted by the screens.
Special dyes in the film are used to match
the screens to film.

Spectral Matching
Calcium Tungstate screen emit blue and
blue violet light. All film will respond to blue
and violet light.
Rare earth screens emit blue-green light.
Green sensitive film must be used. It is
referred to as orthochromatic film. It will
respond to blue & green light spectrums.

Spectral Matching
If the light spectrum does not match, there
will be a significant loss of speed.
Kodak Lanex Regular Screens are rated
at 400 speed with orthochromatic film and
200 speed with blue sensitive film.

Reciprocity Law
Exposure = Intensity x time = Constant
Optical Density
So mA x time (s) = mAs
As long as the product of mA and time are
the same, the optical density should be
the same. Right?
Wrong !!!

Reciprocity Law
There are times when the reciprocity law
does not work with screen film.
Very short exposure times (1 ms) and long
exposure times (1 second or more).
The result is a loss of speed.

Approximate Reciprocity Law

Failure

Exposure Time
1 ms
10 ms
100 ms
1s
10 s

Relative Speed (%)

95
100
100
90
60

Safelight
Working with film in
the darkroom requires
special lighting to
avoid exposure of the
film.
Filters are used to
avoid exposure of the
film.

Safelights
A red filter is used for blue-green sensitive
film.
The color is not the only concern, the
wattage of the bulb and distance from the
counter top is also very important.
Maximum wattage is 15w.
Distance 60 from counter top.

Special Film Types

Direct exposure: once used for small
body parts measuring less than 10 cm.
Requires 10 to 100 time more exposure.
No longer used.
Single emulsion film: once used for
extremities but now most extremity
cassettes are double screen type. Again
required more exposure.

Special Film Types

Mammography Film: Only single
emulsion film currently used in modern
radiography.
Laser Film: Used in medical radiography
with a laser printer for digital radiography,
CT and MRI. Modern units are dry
chemical printers. Similar to laser printers
except image is printed on film.

Special Film Types

Duplication Film: special single emulsion
film used to copy x-ray films. Sensitive to
UV or blue light. Never used in cassettes.
Subtraction Film: used in angiography to
do subtraction where the bone is removed
for better visualize the arteries. Not used
in chiropractic.

Special Film Types

Spotfilm: Special roll film of 70 to 105 mm
width used in fluoroscopy in medical
radiography. Can be processed in x-ray
film processor.
Cine film: 16 mm or 135 mm black &
white film used in coronary angiography.
Requires motion picture film processor.

Handling and Storage of

Radiographic Film
X-ray film is a sensitive radiation detector
and it must be handled in an area free of
radiation.
Film storage must be shielded.
The darkroom adjacent to the x-ray room
must be shielded.
If film use is low more shielding may be
required.

Handling and Storage of

Radiographic Film
Improper handling of the film will result in poor
image quality due to artifacts.
Avoid bending, creasing or otherwise rough handling
the film. Avoid sharp objects contacting the film.
Hands must be clean and dry.
Avoid hand creams, lotions or water free hand
cleaners.
Static electricity or a dirty processor can cause
artifacts.

Artifacts must be avoided.

Handling and Storage of

Radiographic Film
Heat and Humidity must be controlled.
Film is sensitive to heat and humidity from
the time it is manufactured until the time it
is viewed.
Heat and humidity causes fog or a loss of
contrast. Film should be stored at 20 C (68
F).
Humidity should be between 40% and 60%.

Handling and Storage of

Radiographic Film
Light will expose the film. Film must be
handled and stored in he dark.
If low level diffuse light exposes the film, fog is
increased.
Luminous watches, cell phone and darkroom light
leaks should be avoided.

Bright light causes gross exposure.

Handling and Storage of

Radiographic Film
Shelf life. All film is supplied in boxes with an
expiration date.
Most film is supplied in boxes of 100 sheets.
The 14 x 36 size is supplies in 25 sheet boxes with
each sheet interleaved with paper.

The oldest film in stock should always be used

first. Rotation is important.
Expired will loose speed and contrast and have
increased fog.

End of Lecture
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