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Visibility Graphs
Roadmap
Cell Decomposition
Potential Field
Goals
Compute motion strategies, e.g.,
Geometric paths
Time-parameterized trajectories
Sequence of sensor-based motion commands
Fundamental Question
Basic Problem
Problem statement:
Compute a collision-free path for a rigid or articulated
moving object among static obstacles.
Input
Geometry of a moving object (a robot, a digital actor, or a
molecule) and obstacles
How does the robot move?
Kinematics of the robot (degrees of freedom)
Initial and goal robot configurations (positions & orientations)
Output
Continuous sequence of collision-free robot
configurations connecting the initial and goal
configurations
Is it easy?
Hardness Results
Several variants of the path planning problem
have been proven to be PSPACE-hard.
A complete algorithm may take exponential
time.
A complete algorithm finds a path if one exists and
reports no path exists otherwise.
Examples
Planar linkages [Hopcroft et al., 1984]
Multiple rectangles [Hopcroft et al., 1984]
Difficulty
Number of degrees of freedom (dimension of
configuration space)
Geometric complexity
Multiple robots
Movable objects
Nonholonomic & dynamic constraints
Physical models and deformable objects
Sensorless motions (exploiting task
mechanics)
Uncertainty in control
Practical Algorithms
A complete motion planner always returns a
solution when one exists and indicates
that no such solution exists otherwise.
Most motion planning problems are hard,
meaning that complete planners take
exponential time in the number of degrees
of freedom, moving objects, etc.
Practical Algorithms
Theoretical algorithms strive for completeness and
low worst-case complexity
Difficult to implement
Not robust
Output
A collision-free path
between the initial
and goal positions
Framework
A polygonal path is a
piecewise linear curve.
Visibility Graph
Computational Efficiency
O(n2) space
Framework
Breadth-First Search
Breadth-First Search
Breadth-First Search
Breadth-First Search
Breadth-First Search
Breadth-First Search
Breadth-First Search
Breadth-First Search
Breadth-First Search
Breadth-First Search
Framework
Summary
Discretize the space by constructing
visibility graph
Search the visibility graph with
breadth-first search
Q: How to perform the intersection test?
Summary
Represent the connectivity of the
configuration space in the visibility graph
Running time O(n3)
Compute the visibility graph
Search the graph
An optimal O(n2) time algorithm exists.
Space O(n2)
Can we do better?
Roadmap
Visibility graph
Shakey Project, SRI
[Nilsson, 1969]
Voronoi Diagram
Introduced by
computational geometry
researchers. Generate
paths that maximizes
clearance. Applicable
mostly to 2-D
configuration spaces.
Voronoi Diagram
Space O(n)
Run time O(n log n)
Cell-decomposition Methods
Exact cell decomposition
The free space F is represented by a
collection of non-overlapping simple
cells whose union is exactly F
Examples of cells: trapezoids,
triangles
Trapezoidal Decomposition
Computational Efficiency
Running time O(n log n) by planar
sweep
Space O(n)
Mostly for 2-D configuration spaces
Adjacency Graph
Nodes: cells
Edges: There is an edge between every pair of
nodes whose corresponding cells are adjacent.
Summary
Discretize the space by constructing
an adjacency graph of the cells
Search the adjacency graph
Cell-decomposition Methods
Exact cell decomposition
Approximate cell decomposition
F is represented by a collection of nonoverlapping cells whose union is contained
in F.
Cells usually have simple, regular shapes,
e.g., rectangles, squares.
Facilitate hierarchical space decomposition
Quadtree Decomposition
Octree Decomposition
Algorithm Outline
Potential Fields
Initially proposed for real-time collision avoidance
[Khatib 1986]. Hundreds of papers published.
A potential field is a scalar function over the free
space.
To navigate, the robot applies a force proportional
to the negated gradient of the potential field.
A navigation function is an ideal potential field that
Algorithm Outline
Place a regular grid G over the
configuration space
Compute the potential field over G
Search G using a best-first algorithm
with potential field as the heuristic
function
Local Minima
What can we do?
Escape from local minima by taking
random walks
Build an ideal potential field
navigation function that does not have
local minima
Question
Can such an ideal potential field be
constructed efficiently in general?
Completeness
A complete motion planner always
returns a solution when one exists and
indicates that no such solution exists
otherwise.
Is the visibility graph algorithm complete?
Yes.
How about the exact cell decomposition
algorithm and the potential field
algorithm?
Complete motion
planning
Efficient
Work for complex problems
with many DOF
Always terminate
Not efficient
Not robust even for
low DOF
Initi
al
Obstacle
Obstacle
Goal
Main
Challenge
Exponential complexity: nDOF
Degree of freedom: DOF
Geometric complexity: n
Robot
Initia
l
Obstacle
Goal
Approaches
Configuration Space
Goal
Obstacle
Robot
Start
C-obstacle
Free
y
x
Obstacle
y
x
Robot
Approaches
Not practical
Due to free space computation
Limit for special and simple objects
Ladders, sphere, convex shapes
3DOF
Approaches
[Lozano-Prez 83]
[Zhu et al. 91]
[Latombe 91]
[Zhang et al. 06]
Full cell
Configuration Space
full
mixed
Empty cell
Mixed cell
Mixed
Uncertain
empty
Connectivity Graph
G: Connectivity Graph
Gf is a subgraph of G
Initial
Goal
L: Guiding Path
Goal
C-space
Guiding Path
Two-gear Example
Video
no path! 3.356s
Initi
al
Cells
in Cobstacle
Roadmap
in F
Goal
Cell Labeling
Free Cell Query
Whether a cell
completely lies in free
space?
empty
full
mixed
Do
Robot
Obstacle
?
Configuration space
Workspace
Clearance
Separation distance
A well studied geometric problem
d
Determine a volume in C-space which
are completely free
C-obstacle Query
Another Collision Detection Problem
Does the cell lie inside
C-obstacle?
Do
?
Obstacle
Configuration space
Workspace
Forbiddance
Forbiddance: dual to clearance
Penetration Depth
A geometric computation problem less investigated
PD
[Zhang et al. ACM SPM 2006]
Limitation of ACD
Combinatorial complexity of cell
decomposition
Limited for low DOF problem
3-DOF robots
Approaches
Hybrid Planning
Complete Motion Planning
Probabilistic roadmap
motion planning
+ Efficient
+ Many DOFs
+ Complete
- Not efficient
- Narrow passages
- Path non-existence
Connectivity Graph
G: Connectivity Graph
Gf is a subgraph of G
Pseudo-free
edges
Initial
Goal
Initial
Goal
Algorithm
Gf
Gsf
G
4 DOF
4 DOF
timing
cells #
timing
cells #
timing
cells #
Hybrid
34s
50K
16s
48K
102s
164K
ACD
85s
168K
Speedup
2.5
3.3
10
10
Summary
Hybrid Planning
Combine the completeness of ACD and efficiency
of PRM