Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Distribution
Frequency distributions
Raw data are collection of that have not been organised numerically. An
example is the set of weight of say 100 male students obtained from an
alphabetical listing from university records.
Array is an arrangement of raw numerical data in an ascending or
descending order of magnitude.
Useful data are distributed into classes or categories. The tabular
arrangement of data by classes together with corresponding frequency is
called frequency distribution
Number of students
60-62
63-65
66-68
69-71
72-74
5
18
42
27
8
Bar Chart
Bar Chart
A set of rectangles
having base on the
horizontal axis, with the
centres at the class mark
and length equal class
interval size, and areas
proportional to class
frequencies
Frequency Polygon
Polygon
Is a line graph of the
class frequency plotted
against the class mark.
It can be obtained by
connecting the mid
points
Cumulative frequency
Weights
No of students
59.5
62.5
65.5
23
68.5
65
71.5
92
74.5
100
unit 1
0
0
1
55
204
506
1064
413
Number of mills
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
unit 3
0
0
10
35
67
411
1322
457
Number of mills
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Number of mills
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
unit 2
0
0
4
48
188
615
1149
286
unit 4
0
0
2
9
29
278
1220
780
Cumulative Frequency
Gas
turbine
Gas
generator
Lubrication
Control
monitoring
Power
turbine
Starting
system
359
17
360
29
361
20
362
40
15
363
39
25
13
There are many preventive maintenance activities at different intervals. An initial question to ask is
whether or not they were carried out only upon the failure of other items. Some information about
condition monitoring activities was gathered following a number of preventive maintenance and
corrective maintenance activities
Gas
turbine
359
360
361
362
363
Gas
generator
6
8
12
38
27
Lubrication
Control
monitoring
10
8
5
22
22
4
1
2
10
7
Power
turbine
0
3
2
1
10
Starting
system
3
2
1
4
1
Dual redundancy with spares was experienced over the observation period of five years. Now it
remains to be seen what levels of corrective maintenance are performed on the oil platform with lots
of redundancy as opposed to with no redundancy. The corrective maintenance actions were referred
to as failure repairs or replacements, while others were classified as periodic replacements;
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PM and CM Activities
The differences between the gas turbines and their sub-units are clearly evident. Among gas turbines
G362 and G363, there are a lot of failures and maintenance activities. The question here is whether or
not these gas turbines are identical. If not there might be no particular reason for such similarities.
Similarly, units G359, G360 and G361 display roughly equal numbers of failures and might have
some commonality with each other.
11
Frequency of PM and CM
The history data indicate that a substantial amount of preventive maintenance activities,
which consist of minor periodic service tasks, inspections and periodic condition monitoring
activities, are performed but the failure frequency of the gas generators does not improve.
This might possibly be due to imperfect maintenance, or the interval period of PM activities
12
may not be appropriate since similar failures were repeatedly observed.
Sampling Distribution
13
13
Descriptive Measures
When data is clustered, or grouped around a central point, this central point is
often used to describe the data, or the population, and is used as a reference.
The mean (average), median and mode are measures of central tendency.
Mean (or average) is the sum of all the observations (X) divided by the
number of observations (n).
n
Mean =
x
i
i 1
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Variance
For a sample and a population the equations are:
x
n
Sample Variance =
S2
i 1
(n 1)
Where s is the sample variance, X is the sample mean, x is a data value and n
is the number of values (s is the sample standard deviation).
N
Population Variance =
x
i 1
N
Where is the population variance, is the population average, X is a data
value and N is the number of values ( is the population standard deviation).
2
15
Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation is the square root of the variance. The standard deviation is the
most useful measurement of the spread of data in statistical analysis.
x
n
S S2
i 1
(n 1)
N
x
i 1
The standard deviation is the measure of spread or scatter in the population expressed in
the original units.
16
Population Distribution
Sampling distribution of a
sample mean
18
Sampling distribution of a
sample mean:
If a population distribution
N ( , )
x N ( , / n )
20
Normal Population
n
21
Sampling Distributions
Non-Normal Population
Population Distribution
Sampling Distribution
(becomes normal as n increases)
Larger
sample
size
x
22
0.75
1.00
1.50
2.00
population mean = ?
average of all sample means = ?
23
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.50
2.00
24
25
Sampling Dilemma
27
QUESTIONS?
28