MEASUREMENT AND

INSTRUMENTATION

Measurements
Measurement of a given quantity is
essentially an act or result of
comparison between the quantity
(whose magnitude is unknown) and
predetermined
or
predefined
standards.
Two quantities are compared the result
is expressed in numerical values.

Basic requirements for a

meaningful measurement
The

standard used for comparison

purposes must be accurately
defined and should be commonly
accepted.
The
apparatus used and the
method adopted must be provable
(verifiable).
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Significance Of
Measurement

Importance

of
Measurement
is
simply and eloquently expressed in
the following statement of famous
physicist Lord Kelvin: I often say
that when you can measure what
you are speaking about and can
express it in numbers, you know
something about it; when you cannot
express
in
it
numbers
your
knowledge
is
of
meager
and
unsatisfactory kind
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Two major functions of all

branch of engineering
Design

of equipment and
processes
Proper Operation and
maintenance of equipment and
processes.

Methods of Measurement
Direct

Methods

Indirect

Methods

 DIRECT

METHODS: In these methods, the

unknown
quantity
(called
the
measurand ) is directly compared
against a standard.
Measurements by
direct methods are not always possible,
feasible and practicable. In engineering
applications measurement systems are
used which require need of indirect
method for measurement purposes.

INDIRECT

METHOD:

Instruments and Measurement

Systems.
Measurement

involve the use of

instruments as a physical means of
determining quantities or variables.

Because

of modular nature of the

elements within it, it is common to
refer the measuring instrument as a
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM.

Evolution of Instruments.
a) Mechanical
b) Electrical
c) Electronic Instruments.

MECHANICAL: These instruments

are very reliable for static and
stable
conditions.
But
their
disadvantage is that they are
unable to respond rapidly to
measurements of dynamic and
transient conditions.

Contd
ELECTRICAL:

It is faster than mechanical,

indicating the output are rapid than
mechanical methods. But it depends on
the mechanical movement of the meters.
The response is 0.5 to 24 seconds.

ELECTRONIC:

It is more reliable than

other system. It uses semiconductor
devices and weak signal can also be
detected.

10

Elements of Generalized
Measurement System

Primary sensing element.

Variable conversion element.
Data presentation element.
PRIMARY SENSING ELEMENT: The
quantity under measurement makes its
first contact with the primary sensing
element of a measurement system.
VARIABLE CONVERSION ELEMENT: It
converts the output of the primary
sensing element into suitable form to
preserve the information content of the
original signal.
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Contd..
DATA

PRESENTATION ELEMENT: The

information about the quantity under
measurement has to be conveyed to
the personnel handling the instrument
or the system for monitoring, control
or analysis purpose.

12

Functional Elements of an
Instrumentation System
QUANTITY
TO BE
MEASURED

PRIMARY
SENSING
ELEMENT

VARIABLE
CONVER
-SION
ELEMENT

VARIABLE
MANIPULATION ELEMENT

DATA
TRANSMISSIO
-N ELEMENT

DATA
PRESENTA
TION
ELEMENT

DATA CONDITIONING ELEMENT

DETECTOR
TRANSDUCER
STAGE

INTERMEDIATE STAGE

TERMINATING
STAGE

13

Activity 1 (Answers)
Physical
Quantities

Standard Unit

Symbol

Length

Meter

Mass

Kilogram

kg

Time

Second

Temperature

Kelvin

Current

Ampere

Luminous
Intensity

Candela

cd

Matter

Mole

mol

Plane Angle

Radian

rad

Solid Angle

Steradian

sr

Magnetic flux

Weber

Wb

Magnetic flux
density

Tesla

Static Characteristics Of
Measurement system

Application involved measurement of quantity that are

either constant or varies slowly with time is known as
static.
Accuracy
Precision
Tolerance
Range or Span
Linearity
Sensitivity of measurement
Threshold
Resolution
Drift
Hysteresis effect
Dead space
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 ACCURACY: The accuracy of an instrument is a measure

of how close the output reading of the instrument is to
the correct value.
PRECISION: It describes an instruments degree of
freedom from random errors.
TOLERANCE: Defines the maximum error that is to be
expected in some value.
Range or Span: The range or span of an instrument
defines the minimum and maximum values of a quantity
that the instrument is designed to measure.
Linearity: It is normally desirable that the output reading
of an instrument is linearly proportional to the quantity
being measured.
Sensitivity of Measurement: It is a measure of the
change in instrument output that occurs when the
quantity being measured changes by a given amount.
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 Threshold: If the input to an instrument is gradually

increased from zero the input will have to reach a certain
minimum level before the change in the instrument
output reading is of large enough magnitude to be
detectable. This minimum level of input is known as
thereshod.
Resolution: When an instrument is showing a particular
output reading there is a lower limit on the magnitude of
the change in the input measured quantity that produces
an observable change in instruments input.
Drift: Standard ambience conditions are usually defined
in the instrument specification. As variation occurs in
ambience conditions changes certain static instrument
characteristics changes and drift is a measure of the
magnitude of this change.
Dead space: It is defined as the range of different input
values over which there is no change in output value.
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Hysteresis:If the input measured quantity to the instrument is

steadily increased from a negative value, the output reading
varies as in curve (a). It the input steadily decreased, the output
varies as shown in curve (b). This non coincidence between
these curves is known as hysteresis.

18

Characteristics of Measuring
Instruments
Dynamic

Characteristics

These characteristics are related

with the rapidly changing quantities
therefore in order to understand
these types of characteristics we are
required to study the dynamic
relations between the input and the
output.

The dynamic characteristics

of instrument is defined and
Speed of response
evaluated
by
Measurement

lag

Fidelity
Dynamic

error

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Dynamic characteristics
Speed

of Response:It is the rapidity with which the

system responds to the changes
in the quantity to be measured.
It gives the information about
how fast the system reacts to
changes in the input

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Dynamic characteristics
Fidelity:-

It indicates how much faithfully the

system reproduces the changes
in the input.

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Dynamic characteristics
Measurement

of lag
It is the retardation or delay in the
reponse of an instrument to
changes in the measured
quantity.

23

Dynamic characteristics
Dynamic

error:It is the difference between the

true value of the variable to be
measured changing with time
and the value indicated by the
measurement system assuming
zero static error

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Activity 2 (Who Am I ?)
NAME

PURPOSE

Measures current
Measures the capacitance of a component
Measures the amount of energy dissipated
Measures the frequency of the current
Measures the inductance, capacitance and resistance of a
component
Measures power at microwave frequencies
General purpose instrument measures voltage, current and
resistance (and sometimes other quantities as well)
Measures the resistance of a component
Displays waveform of a signal
Generates signals for testing purposes
Measures the power
Measures the potential difference between two points in a
circuit.

Activity 2 (Answers)
NAME

PURPOSE

Ammeter

Measures current

Capacitance meter

Measures the capacitance of a component

Electricity meter

Measures the amount of energy dissipated

Frequency counter

Measures the frequency of the current

LCR meter

Measures the inductance, capacitance and resistance of a

component

Microwave power meter

Measures power at microwave frequencies

Multimeter

General purpose instrument measures voltage, current and

resistance (and sometimes other quantities as well)

Ohmmeter

Measures the resistance of a component

Oscilloscope

Displays waveform of a signal

Signal generator

Generates signals for testing purposes

Wattmeter

Measures the power

Voltmeter

Measures the potential difference between two points in a

circuit.

Parameters involved in
Designing Measuring
Indicating Instruments
Instruments

Has dial and pointer to measure the

quantity
Eg: Analog Voltmeter

Recording

Instruments

Has nozzle nob, pen or plotter

Eg : ECG plotter

Integrating

Instruments

Has coils and wires

Eg: Energy Meters

Out Class Activity

Students are requested to compare

ancient (vs) modern instruments to
measure few parameters.

THANK YOU