Murphy's Laws

of Science and
Technology:
Technology is
dominated by those
who manage what
they do not
understand.

Accuracy
Accuracy: How close a measurement/dimension is
to the true/actual values
To be accurate requires true value (center eye) and
one measurement (one arrow to hit the target).

Precision
Precision refers to the
reproducibility of a measurement.
Requires several
measurements
(notice multiple arrow
holes)
Has nothing to do with the
true value
(none of the values are
close to the target but all
the holes are close
together).

Does this picture represent

accuracy or precision?
1. Accuracy
2. Precision
3. Both

Does this picture represent

accuracy or precision?
1. Accuracy
2. Precision
3. Both

Accurate and Precise

In order to be accurate and precise,
one must pay close attention to detail
to receive the same results every
time as well as hit the target.

A sample weighs 3.182gm. You weighed the

sample 5 different times getting the above
data: 3.200g, 3.180g, 3.152g, 3.126g, &
3.189g. Which measurement is the most
accurate? Ans: Most accurate measurement
would be 3.180 g, because it is closest to
the actual weight of the sample.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

3.200g
3.180g
3.152g
3.126g
3.189g

Consider the data (in cm) obtained for the

length of an object as measured by three
students. The length is known to be 14.5 cm.
Which student had the most precise work?

1. Student A
2. Student B
3. Student C

Consider the data (in cm) obtained for the

length of an object as measured by three
students. The length is known to be 14.5 cm.
Which student had the most accurate
work?

1. Student A
2. Student B
3. Student C

Problem #2 Answer
Answer: Student A had the most precise work
since there is only 0.1 cm between the highest
and lowest values, and Student C had the most
accurate work since two of the measurements
were exactly at the true value and the other three
measurements were within 0.1 cm of the actual
value.

Poor accuracy

Good accuracy

Good accuracy

Good precision

Poor precision

Good precision

In order to win the archery tournament, the archer must hit the target the most
times.
The winner must be accurate and precise.
The first archer is just precise. He or she hit the same area of the target every
time
The second archer was accurate because he hit the target once.
However, the third archer was accurate and precise because he or she hit the
target every time. Therefore, he or she wins!

Example: Evaluate whether the

following are precise, accurate
or both.

Accurate

Not Accurate Accurate

Not Precise Precise

Precise

Error
Error= experimental accepted value

Percent Error
% Error= |experimental accepted|
x100
accepted value

Graduated Cylinder Meniscus

Data Quality
Accuracy + Precision = Quality
Error = fn(accuracy, precision)
Cost vs. quality tradeoff

Random and Systematic

error
Systematic errors affect
accuracy, but are
usually independent of precision; data can use
highly precise methods but still be inaccurate due
to systematic error
Accurate and
precise: no
systematic, little
random error

inaccurate and
precise: little
random error but
significant
systematic error

Accurate and
imprecise: no
systematic, but
considerable random
error
inaccurate and
imprecise: both
types of error

Measurement of Accuracy
Positional accuracy is often stated as a
confidence interval: e.g. 104.2 cm +/- .01
means true value lies between 104.21 and
104.19

104.18

104.19

104.2

104.21

104.22

Measurement of Accuracy

One of the key measurements of positional

accuracy is root mean squared error (MSE);
equals squared difference between observed
and expected value for observation i divided by
total number of observations, summed across
each observation i

This is just a standardized measure of errorhow

close the predicted measure is to observed

Accuracy: How close the experimentally

measured value is to the accepted value
Precision: How close is the experimentally
measured value to the other
experimentally measured values?

Matt

John

Dan

Pete

Assuming the center bull's-eye is our accepted value:

Who is the most accurate at throwing darts?
Who is the least precise?
Describe Johns precision and accuracy to the other dart throwers.

Example: Petes darts are less accurate and less precise than Matts,
and more precise than Johns, and more accurate and more precise t

Precision and Accuracy

Low Precision

Low
Accuracy

High
Accuracy

High Precision

Sources of Error
-

Sample errors
Reagent errors
Reference material errors
Method errors
Calibration errors
Equipment errors
Signal registration and recording errors
Calculation errors
Errors in reporting results

Sources of Error
Sample Errors
- Sample container contaminated.
- Incorrect sample location.
- Non-representative sample.
- Incorrect sample container.
- Sample mix up.

Sources of Error
Reagent Errors
- Impure reagents or solvents.
- Improper storage of reagents.
- Neglect of reagent expiration date.
- Evaporated reagents.
- Consideration of different purities or grades.

Sources of Error
Reference Material Errors
- Impurity of reference materials.
- Errors from interfering substances.
- Changes due to improper storage.
- Errors in preparing reference material.
- Using expired reference material.

Sources of Error
General Method Errors
- Deviating from the analysis procedure.
- Disregard for the limit of detection.
- Disregard for a blank correction.
- Calculation errors (dilutions, mixtures,
additions).
- Not using the correct analytical procedure.

Sources of Error
Calibration Errors
- Volumetric measuring errors.
- Weighing errors.
- Inaccurate equipment adjustments.

Sources of Error
Equipment Errors
-

Equipment not cleaned

Maintenance neglected.
Temperature, electrical, and magnetic effects.
Errors in using pipettes (not calibrated, pipette tip not
correctly attached, contamination).
- Errors in using glass pipettes (damaged, bad
technique, contamination).

Sources of Error
Equipment Errors (continued)
Cuvette errors (defects not considered, unsuitable
cuvette glass, not filled to minimum, wet on the
outside, air bubbles, contamination).
Photometer errors (wrong wavelength, insufficient
lamp intensity, dirty optics, drift effect ignored,
incorrectly set zero, light entering the sample
chamber).

Sources of Error
Signal Registration and Recording Errors
- Incorrect range setting.
- Reading errors.
- Recording errors.
- Switching of data.

Sources of Error
Calculation Errors
- Arithmetic errors, decimal point errors, incorrect
units.
- Rounding errors.
- Not taking into account the reagent blank values.
- Error in dilution factor.

Sources of Error
Errors in Reporting Results
- Omitting a sample error.
- No quality assurance implemented.

Accuracy and Precision

Much of science has to do with
collection and management of
quantitative or numerical data.
The value of computations using
numerical data is greatly dependent
on the accuracy and precision of that
data.

Accuracy and Precision

There is always some degree of
ERROR in a measurement. This is
due to:
Precision of the Equipment
Accuracy of the Measurement

Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy and precision can not be
considered independently
A number can be accurate and not
precise
A number can be precise and not
accurate
The use of the number determines the
relative need for accuracy and
precision

ACCURACY
Accuracy can be defined as how
close a number is to what it should
be.
Accuracy is determined by
comparing a number to a known or
accepted value.

PRECISION
The number of decimal places
assigned to the measured number
It is sometimes defined as
reproducibility

Example 1:
How old are you?
I am 16 years old
I am 15 years and 8 months old
I am 15 years, 8 months, and 5 days old
I am 15 years, 8 months, 5 days, and
10 hours old

Accuracy vs. Precision for

Example 1
Each of these statements is more
accurate and more precise than the
one before it.
Statement two is more accurate and
more precise that statement one.
Statement three is more accurate
and more precise than statement
two.

Example 2:
How long is a piece of string?
Johnny measures the string at 2.63 cm.
Using the same ruler, Fred measures
the string at 1.98 cm.
Who is most precise?
Who is most accurate?

The actual measurement is 2.65 cm.

Accuracy vs. Precision for

Example 2
Johnny is fairly accurate and also
very precise.
Fred is very precise, however, he is
not very accurate. His lack of
accuracy is due to using the ruler
incorrectly.

Example 3
Using a centigram balance,
Mary measured a sample at 3 g.
Ashley measured the same sample at
3.00 g.
Who is most precise?
Who is most accurate?

The actual measurement is 3.01 g.

Accuracy vs. Precision for

Example 3
Mary is reasonably accurate. She
was not very precise because the
balance was capable of measuring to
two decimal places.
Ashley is much more accurate
because of the precision of her
measurement and closeness of her
value to the actual value.

ACCURACY/PRECISION
You can tell the precision of a number
simply by looking at it. The number
of decimal places gives the precision.
Accuracy on the other hand, depends
on comparing a number to a known
value. Therefore, you cannot simply
look at a number and tell if it is
accurate

In Conclusion
In science we depend upon both the
accuracy and precision of the
numbers we use.
The need for accuracy and precision
varies with the circumstance and
other measurements being used.

Measurements
Length: meters
Volume (space occupied by an
object): meter3 OR - liter
Mass (measured by comparing mass
of object to standard mass of 1kg):
gram
Density (ratio of mass of an object to
its volume d=m/v): g/m3 or- g/l
Temperature: C or K

Evaluating Measurements
Accepted Value: true or correct value
based on reliable references
Experimental value: the measured value
determined in the experiment or lab
Error: difference between the accepted
and experimental values
Percent error:
|error|
x
100%
accepted value

ACCURACY
Accuracy is the closeness of a measured value to the true value.
For example, the measured density of water has become more accurate with
improved experimental design, technique, and equipment.

Density of H2O at 20 C
(g/cm3)
1
1.0
1.00
0.998
0.9982
0.99820
0.998203

ACCURACY
Percent error is used to estimate the accuracy of a measurement.

Percent error will always be a positive.

What is the percent error if the measured density of titanium (Ti) is 4.45 g/cm3 and the
accepted density of Ti is 4.50 g/cm3?

PRECISION

Precision is the agreement between repeated measurements of the

same sample. Precision is usually expressed as a standard deviation.
For example, the precision of a method for measuring arsenic (As) was
determined by measuring 7 different solutions each containing 14.3 g/L of
As.
Measured
Concentration
(g/L)
18.4
13.6
13.6
14.2
16.0
13.6
17.8

Average = 15.3 g/L

Standard Deviation = 2.1 g/L
What is the true concentration of As in this experiment?
14.3 g/L
Estimate the accuracy of this method.

How precise is this method?

2.1 g/L

ACCURACY AND PRECISION

Describe the accuracy and precision of these 4 targets.

Accurate, and
precise

Precise, but
not accurate

Accurate, but
not precise

Not accurate,
and not
precise

ERRORS
Systematic (or determinate) errors are reproducible and cause a bias in the
same direction for each measurement.
For example, a poorly trained operator that consistently makes the same mistake will
cause systematic error. Systematic error can be corrected.
Random (or indeterminate) errors are caused by the natural uncertainty that
occurs with any measurement.
Random errors obey the laws of probability. That is, random error might cause a
value to be over predicted during its first measurement and under predicted during its
second measurement. Random error cannot be corrected.

INTERPOLATION AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

By convention, a measurement is recorded by writing all exactly known numbers and
1 number which is uncertain, together with a unit label.
All numbers written in this way, including the uncertain digit, are called significant
figures.

For example, the blue line is 2.73 cm long. This measurement has 3 significant
figures. The first 2 digits (2.7 cm) are exactly known. The third digit (0.03 cm) is
uncertain because it was interpolated or estimated 1 digit beyond the smallest
graduation.

INTERPOLATION AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

What is the volume of water in this graduated cylinder? Always measure the volume
of a liquid at the bottom of the meniscus. The units are mL.

The volume of water is 52.8 mL. The 52 mL are exactly known, and the 0.8 mL is
uncertain because it was interpolated or estimated 1 digit beyond the smallest
graduation.

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES AND ZEROS

Zeros between nonzero digits are significant. That is, 508 cm has 3 significant
figures.
Leading zeroes merely locate the decimal point and are never significant. That is,
0.0497 cm equals 4.97 x 10-2 cm and has 3 significant figures.
Trailing zeros are significant as follows: 50.0 mL has 3 significant figures, 50. mL has
2 significant figures, and 50 mL has 1 significant figure.

Datum
(grams)

Number of
Significant
Figures

Datum
(milliliters)

Number of
Significant
Figures

10,034
1.908
0.32
0.00046
150
0.0000160

5
4
2
2
2
3

150.
0.705
0.054
5.86 x 10-7
3040
0.0000730

3
3
2
3
3
3

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES, ADDITION, AND SUBTRACTION

When adding or subtracting do NOT extend the result beyond the first column with a
doubtful figure. For example,

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES, ADDITION, AND SUBTRACTION

What is 16.874 + 2.6?

What is 16.874 - 2.6?

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES, MULTIPLICATION, AND DIVISION

When multiplying or dividing the answer will have the same number of significant
digits as the least accurate number used to get the answer. For example,
2.005 g / 4.95 mL = 0.405 g/mL
What is 16.874 x 2.6?

What is 16.874 / 2.6?

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES AND CALCULATIONS THAT REQUIRE MULTIPLE STEPS

An average is the best estimate of the true value of a parameter.

A standard deviation is a measure of precision.

Averages and standard deviations require several steps to calculate. You must keep
track of the number of significant figures during each step. Do NOT discard or round
any figures until the final number is reported.

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES AND CALCULATIONS THAT REQUIRE MULTIPLE STEPS

2 Significant
Figures

Significant Figures

1 Significant Figure

1 Significant Figure

2 Significant Figures

1 Significant Figure

0 Significant Figures

 What is average and standard deviation for the following 3 measurements of the
same sample?

Accuracy
How close a measurement is to the actual or
true value
good accuracy
true value
poor accuracy
true value

64

Precision
How well several measurements
agree with each other
good precision
poor precision

65

Accuracy and Precision

What can you say about the accuracy
and precision in each of the following:

Good precision, poor accuracy

Good precision, good accuracy

66

In your new job, you are to make the

pizzas the size shown above. Your
first four pizzas are shown below.

What can you say about the accuracy

and precision of your pizzas?
67

The next four pizzas.

What can you say about the

accuracy and precision of the next
four pizzas?
68

Accuracy is improving.
The two pizzas in the center
show good accuracy. However,
the precision is poor.

69

Pizza Precision
You have very good precision, but
poor accuracy. I think the
customers will want the pizzas
made larger.

70

Accuracy and Precision

At the conclusion of our
time together, you should
be able to:
1. Explain the difference between the accuracy
and precision
2. Give examples of accuracy and precision

Accuracy
Accuracy = the extent to which a
measured value agrees with a standard
value
Accuracy of a device must be checked
Does it read a proper accepted value?
Beware of Parallax the apparent shift in
position when viewed at a different angle.

Graduated Cylinder
Meniscus and Parallax

Example: Accuracy

Who is more accurate when measuring a

book that has a true length of 17.0 cm?
Susan:
17.0 cm, 16.0 cm, 18.0 cm, 15.0 cm
Amy:
15.5 cm, 15.0 cm, 15.2 cm, 15.3 cm

Precision
Precision = the degree of exactness
of a measurement that is repeatedly
recorded.
Which set is more precise?
18.2 , 18.4 , 18.35
17.9 , 18.3 , 18.85
16.8 , 17.2 , 19.44

Example: Precision
Who is more precise when measuring the
same 17.0 cm book?
Susan:
17.0 cm, 16.0 cm, 18.0 cm, 15.0 cm
Amy:
15.5 cm, 15.0 cm, 15.2 cm, 15.3 cm

Accuracy vs. Precision

High Accuracy
High Precision

High Precision
Low Accuracy

Can you hit the bull's-eye?

Three
targets with
three
arrows each
to shoot.
How do
they
compare?

Both
accurate
and
precise

Precise
but not
accurate

Neither
accurate
nor
precise

Can you define accuracy vs. precision?

Why Is There Uncertainty?

Measurements are performed with instruments,
and no instrument can read to an infinite number of
decimal places
Which of the instruments below has the greatest
uncertainty in measurement?

Accuracy and Precision

Lets see if you can:

1. Explain the difference between the accuracy

and precision
2. Give examples of accuracy and precision

Exit Quiz: Evaluate whether the

following are precise, accurate or
both.

Low Accuracy

Low Accuracy

High
Accuracy

Low Precision

High Precision

High

Significant Figures
At the conclusion of our time
together, you should be able
to:

1. Explain what significant figures are in a

measurement
2. Determine the number of significant figures
in any measurement

Significant Figures

The significant figures in a measurement

include all of the digits that are known,
plus one last digit that is estimated.
The numbers reported in a measurement are
limited by the measuring tool.

Measurement and
Significant Figures
Every experimental
measurement has a
degree of uncertainty.
The volume, V, at right is
certain in the 10s place,
10mL<V<20mL
The 1s digit is also
certain, 17mL<V<18mL
A best guess is needed
for the tenths place.

 To indicate the precision of a

measurement, the value recorded should
use all the digits known with certainty,
plus one additional estimated digit that
usually is considered uncertain by plus
or minus 1.
No further insignificant digits should be
recorded.
The total number of digits used to
express such a measurement is called
the number of significant figures.
All but one of the significant figures are
known with certainty. The last significant
figure is only the best possible estimate.

Below are two measurements of the

mass of the same object. The same
quantity is being described at two
different levels of precision or
certainty.