05.politecnico Di Torino Drilling Fluids Programme 2011

CHAPTER
DRILLING
FLUID
PROGRAMME
05. DRILLING FLUIDS PROGRAMME

1
5.1-2. DRILLING FLUIDS
(cost: up to 35% of the project)

2
5.2.1. INTRODUCTION
Drilling fluids are usually two-phase systems: the fluid phase and the solid
phase.
The fluid phase may be formed by only one fluid (water, oil or gas) or by
two immiscible fluids (water and oil, water and gas), in which various
chemicals (salts, alkaline or acid compounds, polymers, surfactants) can
be dissolved to change or to control certain fundamental properties of the
drilling fluid itself.
The solid phase consists of particles of various nature and size
maintained in suspension by the liquid phase. They can derive from
different sources, that is they can be added to the mud on purpose to
obtain certain specific properties (bentonite provides the thixotropic
behaviour of the mud, barite is a weighting agent used to increase the
mud density) or can enter the system from the formations during the drilling
process (drilled cuttings). While the former are beneficial for the system,
the latter can severely change properties and performances of a drilling
mud and should, therefore, be kept under control or eliminated.

3
5.2.1. INTRODUCTION
Depending on the type of base fluid used as continuous phase, drilling
muds can be classified in three main categories, that is:
Water-Based Muds (WBMs): they can be formulated with fresh water, sea
water, various types of brines and even salt saturated water, to or within
which many different components can be added for obtaining the planned
characteristics and performances.
Oil-Based Muds (OBMs, SBMs): they can have as continuous phase
water-free oils, an oil (diesel, mineral or synthetic low toxicity oils) with
emulsified water or brine (inverted emulsion systems) or water/brine in
which an oil has been emulsified (direct emulsion systems). Also in this
case many different chemicals are added to the system to impart to it the
desired properties.
Gas-Based Muds (GBMs): in this case the continuous phase is a gas
(usually air, nitrogen or carbon dioxide) with additions of various quantities
of water. If the water is present in low percentages, the system is defined
as mist; if the concentration of water is higher and foaming agents have
been added to the system, one speaks about foam or stiff foam. Finally,
if the gas is added to the mud, the system is referred to as aerated mud.
4
5.2.1. INTRODUCTION
Classification
of Drilling
Fluids Based
on Their Fluid
Phase

5
5.2.2. MISSION OF THE DRILLING FLUIDS

Drilling fluids possess peculiar features and performances, which must
ensure many crucial tasks on behalf of any possible rotary drilling process.
Here are basically included:
facing formation pressures and supporting well control aims (density);
hole cleaning with removal of cuttings (and other....) from the bottom of the
well providing their transportation up to surface (density & viscosity);
cuttings and solids suspension when mud circulation is temporarily
stopped (gel strength et al.); supplying hydraulic power to the bit
protection and stabilization of bare borehole walls (mud cake, typically);
cooling and lubrication of bit and drill string (lubricant);
reduction of drill string and casing weight, fatigue and wear (density),
where weight reduction is only a consequence;
corrosion control (pH);
command / check remote transmission, and
data and information acquisition (about rocks and formation fluids).
6
5.2.2. FUNCTIONS OF DRILLING FLUIDS
FACING FORMATION PRESSURES - SUPPORTING SPECIAL AIMS

It has already been pointed out that a timely and reliable prediction and quantification
of pressure profiles (in particular of pore and fracture pressures) in a well are essential
for a correct well planning and for safe and cost-effective drilling operations.
The development of pore gradients versus depth determines the density a mud
should have and how it has to be changed as a well is deepened. The correct
selection of the mud density is the most important parameter a drilling fluid engineer
has to define. In fact, until the hydrostatic head assured by the mud column in the well
results to be higher than the formation pressure, no fluids can enter the wellbore and
no problems take place; but if for any reasons the pressure exerted by the mud in the
hole becomes lower than the formation pressure, hole instabilities, kicks or even
blowout can occur, which can endanger the safety of the rig, equipment and
environment and even the lives of the personnel. Of course the mud density should
not be excessive, otherwise low penetration rates, formation fracturing, circulation
losses and, consequently, high drilling costs can be the direct consequence.
Therefore, the mud density should be maintained, if possible, 100-150 g/cc above the
expected pore pressure gradient and always below the predicted fracture gradient.

7
CUTTINGS REMOVAL AND TRANSPORTATION UP TO THE SURFACE

The cuttings generated by the bit must be removed from the bottom of the hole and
transported to the surface as quickly and as more efficiently as possible to ensure
good penetration rates and prevent hole problems, such as stuck pipes, swab and
surge.
The mud physical properties that play a role in an adequate hole cleaning are
viscosity, density and the flow rate used to circulate the mud in the hydraulic circuit.
The mud viscosity is the here one of the most important parameters; in fact, it is well
known that cuttings settle very rapidly in fluids (i.e. water) which have low viscosity,
while the carrying capacity of a mud increases with its viscosity.
Also the density improves the carrying capacity of drilling fluids, because, as it
increases, also does the buoyancy effect on drilled solids.
An efficient hole cleaning standard is also related to the difference between the
velocity with which they are lifted in the annulus (annular velocity) and the velocity
with which they tend to settle on the bottom of the hole because of gravity (slip
velocity); the former is a function of the flow rate and increases as the flow rate
increases, while the latter depends on solid particle size, shape and density.
8

CUTTINGS AND SOLIDS SUSPENSION IN ABSENCE OF CIRCULATION
Another important function of drilling fluids is to maintain the solids, on purpose added
to the mud, and the cuttings, produced by the bit, in suspension, when circulation is
temporarily stopped; if cuttings and solids accumulate on the bottom of the well
around the bottom hole assembly, they can cause problems such as pipe sticking and
circulation losses.
This function is achieved because drilling fluids, composed for a certain amount by
clay minerals and polymers, possess what is called a thixotropic behaviour, that
is they are in a sol-like state when in motion and in a gel-like state when in static
conditions.
The passage form one state to the other can occur indefinitely and this specific
attitude is quantified and measured by the property of the mud called gel strength.

9

PROTECTION AND STABILIZATION OF BOREHOLE WALLS
The filtration process, that is the partial loss of the water phase of a drilling fluid into a
permeable formation, deposits on the walls of the wellbore what is called mud cake or
filter cake, formed by the solids which are present in the fluid.
The main effects of the filter cake are the protection of the rocks from further filtration
(this is particularly important in the case of mineralized formations) and their
stabilization, avoiding problems such as hole caving and sloughing. Obviously, an
optimum quality filter cake in order to be efficient should be very thin, impermeable
and elastic and should be able to self regenerate very quickly, otherwise problems
such as hole tightening with a consequent increase in friction losses, pipe sticking
and circulation losses could occur.
A high initial filtrate (indicated as spurt loss) improves penetration rates in that it is
able to diminish the differential pressure affecting the drilled cuttings (chip hold-down
pressure) facilitating their removal from the bottom of the well.
The mud filtrate amount should be kept within optimal values in order to minimize
formation damage and the interaction of the water phase of the mud with reactive,
sensitive formations, especially shales.

10
5.2.2. FUNCTIONS OF THE DRILLING FLUIDS

COOLING AND LUBRICATION OF BIT AND DRILL STRING
The rotation of the drill string considerably heats the bit and the drill string itself
because of their friction against the wellbore walls. This heat is partially adsorbed by
the formations which are drilled and partially by the circulating mud, which is pumped
into the wellbore at a quite low temperature.
Furthermore, some materials used in the mud composition (i.e. bentonite, water,
surfactants) have a lubricating action lowering the coefficient of friction between the
bit (and the drill string) and the drilled formations.
NOTICE:
Usually any drilling fluid is called INHIBITIVE when it has a significant content in
chemicals able to interact with clays and shales, in order to prevent or to strongly limit
their negative effects (swelling, ..) while drilling.

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COOLING AND LUBRICATION OF BIT AND DRILL STRING
The rotation of the drill string considerably heats the bit and the drill string itself
because of their friction against the wellbore walls. This heat is partially adsorbed by
the drilled formations and partially by the circulating mud, which is pumped into the
wellbore at a quite low temperature (but not always).
Furthermore, some materials used in the mud composition (i.e. bentonite, water,
surfactants) have a lubricating action lowering the coefficient of friction between the
bit and the drill string and the formations.
DRILL STRING FATIGUE AND WEAR REDUCTION

The buoyancy effect of the mud, which increases with its density, lowers the weight
of the tubulars run in the wellbore (drill string and casings) with respect to their weight
in air, thus reducing the stress on the rig surface equipment (rotary table, crown and
travelling blocks, mast and substructure).
This effect becomes more and more important as the depth of a well and the weight of
the tubulars to be run increase.

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CORROSION CONTROL
A drilling fluid should not be corrosive with respect to the surface and downhole
equipment and should neutralize the effects of possible corrosive fluids entering the
wellbore (i.e. O2, CO2, H2S).
This function is ensured by the pH of the mud, which is usually maintained at values
of 9 and more, and through the addition of specific chemicals, such as oxygen
scavengers and hydrogen sulphide scavengers.

13

DATA GATHERING ON ROCKS AND FORMATION FLUIDS
The geological, physical and chemical analysis of the cuttings, lifted up to the surface
by the circulating mud, allows the acquisition of data which are essential for safe and
cost-efficient operations. In particular, it is possible to reconstruct the lithological and
stratigraphic sequence of the formations crossed by the well (Master Log), which
permits the comparison of the actual situation of the well with respect to the planned
objectives; furthermore, many important decisions regarding, for example, casing
setting depths, bit selection, deepening of the well or well abandoning can be taken.
The presence in the mud of traces of oil, salt water and gas helps in understanding
the type of mineralization of the various formations drilled. The chemical analysis of
the mud and its filtrate (presence of specific ions: chlorides, sulphates, divalent
cations, etc.) indicates if particular formation fluids have entered the wellbore or if
special formations have been drilled (salt, gypsum, anhydrite, etc.).
Recent developments in cuttings characterization achieved by Eni E&P Rock
Mechanics Laboratories (i.e. indentation tests with determination of the mechanical
properties of the cuttings, interaction between cuttings and drilling fluids, cuttings
density and transit time measurements) allow the prediction of pore pressure
gradients and support the solution of hole stability problems.
All drilling rigs are equipped with dedicated units, called Mud Logging Units, which
allow the complete real-time characterization of both drilled cuttings and muds.
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5.2.3. MAIN DRILLING FLUID COMPONENTS

As said, drilling fluids are composed by a continuous phase (water, oil, gas or their
combination), to which many different types of chemicals are added depending on
the final performances a system is called to provide. These chemicals can be
grouped in two categories:
solutes, which are soluble in water or oil and completely dissolve into the
continuous phase becoming an integral part of its composition;
solid materials, which are not soluble and are maintained in suspension by the
liquid phase. They can be furthermore subdivided into commercial solids, when
added to the mud on purpose, and drilled solids, which are incorporated into the
mud while drilling a specific formation. Solids can be classified according to their
size (from colloidal to gravel dimensions), surface electrical charges (reactive as
clays or inert as barite) and their specific gravity (high gravity solids as weighting
materials or low/intermediate gravity solids as shales, sands for other purpose, etc)
Next Tables summarize the main components of the drilling fluids, grouped in the
different main categories described above, that is: the continuous fluid phase, the
solutes and the materials contributing to set up the solid phase.

15

SOLUTE TYPE
MAIN FUNCTIONS
Salts/Ionic Compounds (NaOH, KOH,

NaCl, KCl, CaCl2, CaBr2, KOH, Na2SO3,
ZnCO3, Na2CO3, NaHCO3, etc.)
Adjust alkalinity
Increase density (completion brines)
Aid inhibition of reactive formations
Prevent solution of evaporitic formations
Adjust water activity in inverted emulsion systems
Aid corrosion control
Combat cement contamination
Aid polymers solubilization
Polymers (anionic, non-ionic, cationic)
Control viscosity
Control fluid loss
Aid inhibition of reactive formations
Aid deflocculation and flocculation
Avoid cutting dispersion
Surfactants
Aid corrosion control

Improve lubrication
Minimize bit balling
Improve emulsion stabilization
Asphaltic derivatives
Improve lubrication
Control fluid loss
Improve suspension properties
16
Main Drilling
Fluid Solutes

CATEGORY
FUNCTION
TYPE
Weighting materials
Increase mud density
Barite, Hematite, Calcium

Carbonate
Clays
Increase viscosity
Bentonite. Sepiolite
Reduce filtrate
Increase lubricity
Aid in bridging
Hole stabilizers
Plug microfractures
Asphalts, Gilsonite
Reduce filtrate
Lost circulation materials
LCMs
Seal porosity
Plug microfractures
Fibres, Flakes, Resins,

Salts
Plug fractures
Solid state torque reducers
Reduce torque and drag

Aid lubricity
Microspheres
Reduce mud density (***)
Graphite, Teflon Beads,

Bentonite
Glass Beads

17
Some Solid
Phase
Additives and
Their
Functions
5.2.4. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF DRILLING FLUIDS

The properties possessed by all drilling fluids systems can be divided into two main classes:
physical properties;
chemical properties;
and can be measured on the mud itself or on its filtrate.
The first ones are depending in particular from both the liquid and the solid phases, while the latter
are influenced by the solutes, including ionic species, polymers and other water- or oil-soluble
compounds. Each fluid is designed in such a way to have and maintain a certain number of
properties, those considered well suited for a specific field application or problem.
The laboratory and field tests required for the physical and chemical characterization of drilling
fluids are based on the procedures set by the American Petroleum Institute (API) and by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and published in the Bulletins:
ISO 10414 Petroleum and natural gas industries Field Testing of Drilling Fluids, which
consists of the following parts:
- Part 1: Water-based fluids, ISO 10414-1: 2008, Second Edition, 2008-03-15, ISO 10414-1:2008
(E).
- Part 2: Oil-based fluids, ISO 10414-2: 2002, First Edition, 2002-07-15, ISO 414-2: 2002(E).
ISO 10416 Petroleum and natural gas industries -Drilling fluids - Laboratory testing, Second
Edition, 2008-06-01, ISO 10416: 2008(E).
ISO 13500: 2008 Petroleum and natural gas industries Drilling Fluid Materials Specifications
and tests, which has been approved by CEN as EN ISO 13500:2008 without any modification,
Third Edition, 2008-11-01. It supersedes ISO 13500:2006.
18

The most important physical properties a drilling fluid must possess are:
density: the selection of the density of the mud is function of the pore pressure and fracture
gradients of the formations to be drilled;
viscosity: it represents the internal resistance offered by the fluid to flow, that is to be circulated
and maintained in motion. From it some important performances of drilling fluids depend such as
their solids carrying and hole cleaning capacities and wellbore walls stabilization;
yield point or yield value: this quantity represents the initial resistance offered by a fluid to be
put in motion, that is the stress required to make a fluid to pass from static to dynamic conditions;
gel strength: it defines the attitude of a fluid to form a gel-like structure and is mainly due to the
electrostatic interactions of electrically charged products and chemicals such as bentonite, native
clays, shales and polymers. The gel strength indicates the ability of a fluid to maintain the solids in
suspension once circulation is stopped and the drilling fluid is in static conditions;
filtrate: the liquid lost by a drilling fluid into permeable formations can cause formation damage
and hole instability, though a certain amount (the spurt loss) can enhance penetration rate;
sand content: this gives an indication of the amount of sand incorporated into the system while
drilling. The sand concentration should be maintained as low as possible to limit its wearing effect
on tubulars (drill string and casings) and surface equipment;
oil-water-solid content: the knowledge of this parameter allows to define the gross composition
of a drilling fluid and if the various components are correctly balanced for a given mud formulation;
electric stability of water-in-oil emulsions: it quantifies if an emulsion of water (dispersed
phase) in oil (continuous phase) is stable and up to which extent
cake thickness: the cake can stop filtration and stabilize wellbore walls.
19

The chemical properties, measured on both the whole mud and on its filtrate, comprehend:
pH: it measures the concentration of hydrogen ions in a mud filtrate. Normally pH values around
9 and above, are maintained in most drilling fluid compositions because of the convenience to
have all clay and shale particles negatively charged. Furthermore, most of the polymers used
solubilise more easily in alkaline environments;
alkalinity: this parameter indicates the concentration of other ions than H + in a mud and in its
filtrate, precisely that of carbonate and bicarbonate ions, which can provide important information
about the rheological stability of water-based muds;
chlorides concentration: it can indicate if salt waters are entering the wellbore or if salt levels
are drilled. In mud system, where salts have been added on purpose, chloride ion measurements
show the amount of salinity present in the mud;
total hardness of water: this parameter measures the content in divalent cations (calcium and
magnesium) of waters used in mud fabrication. Hard waters can negatively influence bentonite
yielding and polymers action;
MBT test: the methylene blue dye test is used to determine the cation exchange capacity of the
solids present in a drilling mud. In bentonite-based drilling fluids, the MBT test gives an indication
about the amount of reactive clays present, while for bentonite-free systems reflects the reactivity
of the drilled solids;
hydrogen sulphide concentration: in many areas of the world hydrogen sulphide can be
encountered by itself or in association with hydrocarbons. Its prompt recognition is very important
because it is very dangerous and even lethal to human life and highly corrosive with respect to
downhole and surface equipment;
general chemical analysis: many other ionic species can be measured (K+, lime, sulphates)
20

The density of a
drilling fluid is directly
linked
to
other
important properties
such
as
solids
content,
Marsh
viscosity,
plastic
viscosity,
yield
strength, gels and
filtrate, as shown in
these slides.

21

22
5.2.5. DRILLING FLUID possible CLASSIFICATION

Many different types of drilling fluids can be prepared by using the categories of
products seen before. In accordance with their application, each Oil Company follows
a specific criterion to classify them. The Table below lists the classification followed by
Eni E&P.
NON-INHIBITIVE WATER
BASED MUDS
INHIBITIVE WATER
BASED MUDS
OIL BASED MUDS
Bentonitic Mud
Guar Gum Suspension
Bentonitic Mud with CMC
Low Solid Mud with
Bentonite Extender
Lignosulphonate Mud
Chromelignin Mud
PAC Mud
PHPA Mud
Salt Saturated Mud

AGIPAK Mud
KCl Mud
Gypsum Mud
Lime Mud
Diesel Oil I.E. Mud

!00% Diesel Oil Mud
Diesel Oil Mud with
Relaxed Filtrate

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INHIBITIVE OR SPECIAL
MUDS AT LOW
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
K2CO3 Mud
Potassium Acetate Mud
Water Based Mud for HT
(>200oC)
Cationic Mud
Glycol-Based Mud
I.E Mud with Low Toxicity
Oil
50/50 I.E. Mud
I.E. Ester-Based Mud
I.E. Polyalphaolefins Mud
5.2.5.1. WATER BASE(D) DRILLING FLUIDS

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5.2.5.1.1. MAIN COMPONENTS

OF
WATER BASE(D) DRILLING FLUIDS

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5.2.5.1.1.1. MAKE-UP WATER

The water used to prepare a drilling fluid can be either fresh water coming from aqueducts or
taken from lakes, rivers, streams, etc., or, as done more frequently, produced from water wells
drilled very close to the well prior to start drilling. Sometimes, the make up water can be supplied
in tanks.
When drilling offshore, sea water can be used at least for the preparation of the drilling fluids to
be used in the shallower and larger holes, where no particular sophisticated systems are
required. In some circumstances, also brackish water can be employed.
However, in all cases the composition of the make-up water must be analyzed to determine its
hardness (concentration of calcium and magnesium ions) and the eventual presence and
concentration of other ions, such as chlorides, sulphates, nitrates, presence of organic matter,
bacteria, etc., that is all the substances that can affect the performances of the chemicals which
are planned to be used to impart to the mud the desired characteristics.
If needed, the water has to be adequately treated to eliminate the undesired chemical and
biologic species or fabricated from sea water (drill-water).

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5.2.5.1.1.2. WEIGHTING AGENTS

Drilling fluids are densified or weighted up to to control sub-surface pressures and
stabilize incompetent formations. The Table below lists the most common solid phase
weighting materials used in drilling muds.
MINERAL
MAIN
COMPONENT
SPECIFIC
GRAVITY
MOHS
HARDNESS
CALCIUM CARBONATE
CaCO3
2,65-2,71
IRON CARBONATE
FeCO3
3,7-3,9
3,5-4,0
BARIUM SULPHATE
BaSO4
4,2-4,5
2,5-3,5
HEMATITE
Fe2O3
4,9-5,3
5,5-6,5

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5.2.5.1.1.2. WEIGHTING AGENTS

The weighting materials to be effective have to possess the following main
characteristics:
a high specific gravity so that the concentration of solids in the drilling fluid is not
increased too much;
low abrasiveness in order not to wear tubulars and surface equipment;
ready availability;
low cost.
Barite is by far the most common weighting material. It is easily dispersed and
virtually insoluble in water. It is almost completely inert in water-based systems and is
relatively non-abrasive. Some low grades of Barite may contain variable quantities of
impurities, such as heavy metals ((Pb, As, Cu, Hg, etc.), which can pose problems in
the disposal of drilling fluid wastes or alkaline-terrigenous compounds (i.e. CaSO4)
which may behave as potential contaminants of WBMs.
.
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5.2.5.1.1.3. VISCOSIFIERS
Viscosifiers are added to drilling fluids to increase their viscosity and improve their
cleaning and suspension functions. Primary viscosifiers for water-based fluids are
normally clays or polymers, which impart both pseudoplastic and thixotropic
properties to the fluid.
The selection of the most appropriate product is dependent upon economics, logistics
and the expected operative environment (temperature, water salinity, presence of
bacteria, etc.). Other chemicals including salts and bridging polymers may enhance
the properties imparted by the primary viscosifiers.
Bentonite is often used as the primary viscosifier in most WBMs due to its efficacy,
low cost, availability. As the well conditions become more demanding, bentonite can
be added or replaced with high molecular weight polymers, such as: high viscosity
Carboxymethylcellulose (HV CMC), polyanionic cellulosic polymers (PAC), Xanthan
Gum, Guar Gum, etc.
In systems using seawater, brines, gypsum or a commercial salt kind, bentonite must
be prehydrated in fresh water before the addition of other chemicals; the slurry is
referred to as Prehydrated Bentonite or PHB.
29
Polymers are widely used in drilling fluids manufacturing, owing to the many different
properties they can impart. For this reason, a brief description of the main
characteristics are here below proposed.
STRUCTURE AND BEHAVIOUR OF POLYMERS
The factors that determine the behaviour of a particular polymer are quite complex
and often only small changes in the structure of the molecule can substantially alter
its properties. This gives the polymers an inherent versatility, which is reflected in the
wide variety of applications for which polymers are well suited as previously shown.
The most important variables from which the behaviour of polymers depends are:
molecular weight;
type of functional groups present onto the molecule;
three dimensional structure.

30
Molecular Weight
The molecular weight, which is equivalent to say the chain length, of polymers can be
varied by limiting the number of chain terminating groups or by chemical degradation
of longer chains. Another important feature is the distribution of molecular weights; in
fact, if this distribution is quite broad, the low molecular weight material, if in larger
quantity, can dominate or at least modify the behaviour and performances of the
higher molecular weight materials.
Polymers usually have molecular weights ranging between 1,000 up to 1,000,000 D
and more.

31
Type of Functional Groups
The chemical reactivity of polymers strictly depends on number, type and distribution
of the reactive functional groups which are attached to the molecule backbone. The
groups that are present on polymers usually belong to one of these three categories:
non-ionic;
anionic or negatively charged;
cationic or positively charged.
Non-ionic: the most common non-ionic groups typical of drilling fluid polymers are
alcohols, ethers, esters, amides, alkyl halides, alkenes, etc. An important feature of
these chemicals is that they all readily form hydrogen bonds with water and, therefore,
can hydrate and ultimately solvate. Because non-ionic polymers (i.e. starch, guar
gum, hydroxyethylcellulose) have no dissociable radicals, they result to be very stable
in highly saline environments.

32
Type of Functional Groups
Anionic: the anionic polymers owe their behaviour to the presence on their
backbones of negatively charged groups such as: carboxylic, phosphate,
phosphonate, sulphonate, sulphate, etc. While speaking about clays and shales, it
has been pointed out that these rocks present on their surfaces negative charges and
that the broken edges are also negative if the pH is kept on alkaline values. In order
to further favour repulsive forces with respect to attractive forces, because this gives
drilling fluids with the desired degree of viscosity and deflocculation, most polymers
are consequently anionic (i.e. carboxymethyl cellulose, polyanionic cellulose, partially
hydrolized polyacrylamide, lignosulphonates, polyacrylates, etc.).
Cationic: cationic polymers contain positively charged functional groups (i.e.
ammonium) and are not normally used in drilling fluids manufacturing, because they
will increase attractive forces, thus causing the flocculation of clays. They can serve
as emulsifiers, wetting agents and surfactants.

33
Tridimensional Structure
The shape or tridimensional structure the polymers can assume are very different and
depends on several factors as the following:
the type of monomers and comonomers from which the polymer derives which can
produce long chains or differently branched and crosslinked structures;
the concentration, type and distribution of the reactive groups on the molecules;
the pH of the solution in which the polymers are placed as it changes their ionic
character with effects on repulsive and attractive forces within and among the
molecules;
the salt concentration also affects the electrostatic repulsion between the charges
and consequently polymer configurations. For instance, in case of an anionic polymer,
if this is placed in fresh water, the negative charges present on the polymer molecules
repulse each other and the polymer will assume a stretched elongated configuration;
if, on the contrary, the polymer is in presence of monovalent and divalent cations
(Na+, K+, Ca+2), these will neutralize the negative charges on the same molecule or on
adjacent molecules, bridging them and thus producing a tightly coiled structure. The
change in molecular shape will also change the physical properties of polymers in
solution.
34
Tridimensional Structure

35
POLYMERS USED IN DRILLING FLUIDS

Though several hundreds of polymers are currently available on the market, from a
strict chemical point of view they can be grouped in three main categories, that is:
natural polymers;
semi-synthetic or modified natural polymers;
synthetic polymers.

36
NATURAL POLYMERS
These polymers directly derive from substances of vegetal or animal origin and,
sometimes, from the action of microorganisms on these substances.
The most common natural polymers used in drilling fluids preparation are:
Starch, which is a carbohydrate of vegetal origin, consisting of a large number of
glucose units linked together by glycosidic bonds. It makes up the nutritive reserves of
many plants (cereals: corn, wheat, rice, barley and tubers: potato, tapioca, cassava);
Guar Gum, which is extracted from the beans of a leguminose plant called guar. It
is non-ionic and shows a rapid hydration even in cold water.
Xanthan Gum, which is a slightly anionic, water-soluble biopolymer produced by a
process involving the fermentation of glucose or sucrose by a bacterium named
Xanthomonas campestris, hence also its appellative XC polymer.
Scleroglucan, which is a non-ionic, water soluble polysaccharide, containing many
glucose units, produced with different techniques by submerged cultivation of the
Sclerotium rofsii (its a filamentous fungus) in a glucose and water solution.
Lignite products are natural, anionic, long-chain molecules with a structure similar
to that of lignosulphonates.

37
SEMI-SYNTHETIC POLYMERS
Also what are called semi-synthetic polymers are of natural origin and belong to the
vast family of the carbohydrates. They are derived by synthesis introducing onto a
natural substrate some specific functional groups with the purpose to improve certain
physical and chemical properties of the original product (i.e. solubility in water,
resistance to divalent cations, thermal stability, etc.). The most important ones are:
Modified starches, which have been synthesized with the intent to improve the
resistance to thermal degradation of the natural substances. The main modifications
regard the introduction in the molecule of carboxymethyl or hydroxypropyl groups.
Carboxymethyl Cellulose (CMC), which is a cellulose derivative with
carboxymethyl groups (CH2COOH). It is an anionic, water-soluble and chemically
reactive polymer, available in different purity grades (technical, semi-purified and
purified) and MW (high viscosity and low viscosity CMC).
Polyanionic Cellulose Polymers, or simply PACs, which are CMCs with higher
degree of substitution (DS>1) and molecular weights and in which the carboxymethyl
groups are distributed along with the polymer molecules in a more orderly way than in
standard CMCs.
Lignosulphonates, which are derived from Lignin, the chief constituent of wood.
They have complex structures that include aromatic rings and acid groups, such the
sulphonated groups, that make them tolerant to most ionic species contamination.
38
SYNTHETIC POLYMERS
Synthetic polymers are called so, because they are the result of reactions of synthesis
and precisely of polymerization by addition.
The most common additives of this category, which find application in drilling fluids
imparting to them a wide variety of properties, belong to the families of the
polyacrylates, polyacrylamides and various copolymers (Vinyl Acetate Maleic
Anhydride or VAMA, Sulphonated Styrene Maleic Anhydride or SSMA,
Vinylsulphate Vinylamide or VSVA) .
FUNCTION
MOLECULAR WEIGHT
NUMBER OF MONOMERS
Deflocculant
7,000
100
Fluid Loss Reducer
6,000
80
Flocculant
3,000,000
40,000
Bentonite Extender
10,000,000
130,000
Relationship between Molecular Weight and Function of Polyacrylates

39
MATERIAL
PRIMARY FUNCTION
SECONDARY FUNCTION
VISCOSIFIER
FLUID LOSS REDUCER
POLYACRYLATE
BENTONITE EXTENDER
FLUID LOSS REDUCER
PAC
VISCOSIFIER (USED IN
GYPSUM-BASED MUDS)
FLUID LOSS REDUCER
XANTHAN GUM
VISCOSIFIER (FOR ALL

SYSTEMS))
FLUID LOSS REDUCER
VISCOSIFIER (FOR HIGH

VISCOSITY PILLS)
DRILLED SOLIDS
FLOCCULANT
VISCOSIFIER FOR
COMPLETION FLUIDS
LOW FORMATION
DAMAGE
BENTONITE
GUAR GUM
HEC

40
5.2.5.1.1.4. FILTRATION CONTROL AGENTS

The polymers used to reduce fluid loss in drilling fluids act according to three main mechanisms:
they plug or block the pores of the formations drilled;
they increase the viscosity of the water phase of the fluid;
they, finally, deflocculate clays contributing to a more impermeable filter cake.
In the first case the polymer itself may cause the blockage of the pores if its dimensions are
small enough and compatible with the size of the pore throats (about 1 m or less). These
polymers must not be completely soluble in water; therefore, starch and asphalt derivatives can
function in this manner. Polymers can also adhere to suspended colloidal particles, determining
an increase in their dimensions and thus contributing to the blockage of pore throats.
Another way to decrease fluid loss rates can be achieved by increasing the viscosity of the water
phase; this effect can be performed by high MW polymers, such as guar gum, xanthan gum,
HEC and HV cellulose polymers, particularly if they are also ionic, because they can create
bridges among clay platelets promoting a better blockage through larger particle size.
Finally, anionic polymers favour the deflocculation and dissociation into smaller particles of
suspended solids; this can result in a closer packing of the materials that form the filter cake,
that will result, consequently, more impermeable. Lignosulphonates, low molecular weight
cellulose derivatives and polyacrylates are the most effective at this regard, having a high
anionicity and not too high molecular weights.
41

The additives, which can control fluid-loss, belong to two main categories:
particulate materials, that is materials characterized by very small dimensions so
that they can enter the filter cake and lodge among the cake-forming particles
decreasing its permeability. Additives with this behaviour are: bentonite, carbonate
powder, lignite, asphaltic products, etc.;
water soluble polymers, which control fluid-loss through a combination of the
mechanisms described above, though the main action is always due to the physical
plugging of the pores of the filter cake. Water-soluble polymers can form weakly
bonded colloidal aggregates in solution, which are sufficiently stable to become
wedged on the filter cake constrictions. They can also be adsorbed on the surfaces of
the grains, thus decreasing the size of the pores to occlude. The effect on water
mobility, due to an increase in its viscosity, is by far less important than the
mechanical plugging action. A wide variety of polymers exhibits these properties such
as: low viscosity carboxymethylcellulose (CMC LV), starches, PAC,
carboxymethylhydroxyethyl cellulose (CMHEC), sulphonated synthetic polymers.
The most common polymers used as filtrate reducers are starches and CMCs.
42
MATERIAL
Modified Starch
CMC
PAC
Synthetic Polymers
Sodium Humate
Lignite
PRIMARY FUNCTION
SECONDARY FUNCTION
Fluid Loss Reducer for High Salinity

Systems
Acid Soluble (with residue)
Low Cost Fluid Loss Reducer
Viscosifier
Fluid loss reducer for moderately saline Mild Deflocculant for Systems
systems
with Salts and not Weighted
Fluid Loss Reducers for High
Temperature Applications (>200oC)
Moderate Deflocculants
Fluid Loss Reducer for HT and Saline

Environments
Deflocculant
Low Cost Fluid Loss Reducer
Deflocculant

43
5.2.5.1.1.5. DEFLOCCULANTS
With the term deflocculation it is meant a reduction in the number or degree of
particle associations which are present in a colloidal suspension; as this process
occurs, the viscosity of the suspension decreases. Some polymers, called
deflocculants and improperly thinners or dispersants, help obtaining deflocculated
systems. In most cases, they are anionic polymers with low molecular weight and,
therefore, with short chains, which, because being negatively charged, are easily
adsorbed on the positively charged sites of broken edges of shale platelets, causing
them to behave as though they were completely anionic, too. Deflocculants, therefore,
are used to control rheology when salts, temperature and excessive solids
concentration cause increased viscosity.
Very often, small molecules, such as polyphosphates, or short chain polyacrylates
can be used to deflocculate drilling fluids. But repulsive forces among shale or clay
particles can be further increased by using larger anionic molecules (i.e.
lignosulphonates); this introduces a sterical factor, which physically prevents the
particles from approaching too much each other, resulting more effective at keeping a
system deflocculated also in environments characterized by high salt concentrations
and hardness.

44
5.2.5.1.1.5. DEFLOCCULANTS
Deflocculants are generally used to extend the performance of water-based fluids, in
particular in case of high temperature and high solid concentration (weighted muds).
Deflocculants control the rheological and thixotropic properties by decreasing the
degree and strength of the colloidal particle associations in drilling fluid suspensions.
MATERIAL
PRIMARY FUNCTION
SECONDARY
FUNCTION
Sodium Acid Pyro

Phosphate, SAPP
Strong Deflocculant
Calcium Precipitation
Ferro-Chrome
Lignosulphonates
Deflocculant for All WBMs
Fluid Loss Control
Polyacrylates
Sodium Salts of
Polycarboxylic Acids
Deflocculant for All WBMs

Deflocculants for HT
Conditions (up to 250oC)

45
Fluid Loss Control

Fluid Loss Control
5.2.5.1.1.6. SHALE STABILIZATION ADDITIVES

With the term shale stabilization it is usually meant the mechanism which retards
the adsorption of water and the consequent swelling/dispersion processes to which
most shales and clays undergo because of their electrical charges and their
consequent reactions with water, salts and polymers. Most polymers currently
available to the Oil Industry or used in the past are able to stabilize shales to more or
less acceptable levels. The polymers used for this purpose go from cellulosic
derivatives to xanthan gum, starch, lignosulphonates, PHPA and even non-ionic types
such as HEC.
The choice of the most appropriate polymer depends, at least in theory, on the
mechanism which is supposed to influence the above mentioned processes. Among
them, it is worth recalling:
polymer adsorption (or encapsulation) onto shale surfaces;
the reduction of the erosive action of the drilling fluid circulating in the annulus
by decreasing, for instance, friction against the wellbore walls;
pore blocking with a reduction of formation permeability and consequently of
cations exchange and hydration.
A correct mud density is also critical in minimizing wellbore instabilities, at least in
the short time.
46
5.2.5.1.1.6. SHALE STABILIZATION ADDITIVES
Depending on the particular characteristics of the clays and shales to drill, many
chemicals and systems are available on the market. They act according to various
mechanisms, such as:
balanced activity: inverted-emulsion muds;

cation exchange: potassium, calcium, aluminium salts;
encapsulation: polyacrylamides, lignosulphonates, PAC;
plastering (plugging of microfractures): gilsonite, asphaltic products;
increased fluid density: addition of weighting materials.

47
5.2.5.1.1.7. LOST CIRCULATION MATERIALS

Lost circulation materials (LCMs) are used to stop excessive losses of drilling fluid
into permeable or fractured formations. Lost circulation materials are classified as
flaky, granular or fibrous. Mechanisms for stopping losses include: matting, bridging
and plugging (sometimes using natural resources too).
Many substances can be used for regaining circulation:
Flaky materials include cellophane, mica and wood chips. They are best for
plugging and bridging porosity and microfissures.
Fibrous materials include pulverized sugar cane stalks, cotton fibres and wood
fibres. They work by penetrating and forming a mat on fractures or pores on which
other solids can build on.
Granular products include diatomaceous earth, ground walnut hulls and calcium
carbonate. They work by plugging pores and microfissures.
Many products contain a mixture or proprietary blend of these. Often, the choice of
which product to use is based on trial and error experimentation or by previous
experiences in an area. Lost circulation materials are often incorporated into various
lost circulation plugs and slurries, including cement slurries, "gunk (DOB) plugs , etc.
48
5.2.5.1.1.8. CONDITIONING CHEMICALS

Many inorganic and organic additives can enter into a mud formulation to impart
basic and specific properties or to counteract any eventual contamination. Among the
most common chemicals used for this scope, it is worth mentioning:
pH and alkalinity control additives have influence on many drilling fluid properties.
The solubility and effectiveness of most water-based drilling fluid components are
improved at proper pH conditions, including clays, polymers and thinning chemicals.
Alkalinity is important in terms of suppressing the solubility of contaminating ions and
molecules such as Ca2+, Mg2+, H2S and CO2.
Surfactants are used to alter the surface chemistry of drilling fluid components, steel
pipe or formation materials. They modify or reduce surface tension at the interface of
various water-based fluid phases. Surfactants are used to combat bit balling and
cuttings sticking to drilling tools. This results in better ROP's and easier wiper trips.
Surfactants are usually organic compounds that are amphiphilic, meaning that they
contain both hydrophobic groups (their "tails") and hydrophilic groups (their "heads");
therefore, they are soluble in both organic solvents and water.

49

Lubricants are used to reduce rotary torque and hole drag in deep and, in particular,
in directional and horizontal wells.
Corrosion inhibitors are a broad class of conditioning chemicals. They are expected
to work in corrosive environments by various mechanisms or combinations of
mechanisms. Corrosive gases include H2S, CO2 and O2, or any combination of all
three. Several factors affect corrosion rates, including holes temperature and pressure.
Bactericide is the generic name given to any substance that kills bacteria.
Bactericides vary greatly in their potency and specificity. They may include other
organisms and many different chemical compounds. Bacterial growth may result in the
destruction of drilling fluid polymers. resulting in a loss of filtration or suspension
properties. Sulphate Reducing Bacteria (SRB) can generate H2S through the
degradation of sulphur-containing chemicals in concentrations high enough to be lethal.
Microorganisms may produce enzymes, which also attack and decompose organic
materials. Thus the selection of the proper bactericide is extremely important.

50

Defoamers are used to combat foam in drilling fluids; foam is undesirable because
pumps and solids equipment efficiency rates are hampered by it. Foam also increases
corrosion rates and leads to erroneous PVT estimates. When not treated properly
severe foaming problems can lead to a complete inability to pump. Defoamers are also
used to remove entrained air or gas from fresh water fluids. They work by reducing the
surface tension of bubbles. Because so many variables can contribute to foaming
problems, pilot testing is often conducted at the rig to aid in choosing the most efficient
product. They can be higher alcohols, sulphated vegetable oils and aluminium stearate.
Freeing Pipe Spotting Fluids are used to aid in freeing differentially stuck drill pipe.
They often contain a blend of several constituents. The main working mechanism
involves drying or dehydrating the filter cake and decreasing friction coefficients.
Oil may be occasionally added (up to 4-6%) to water-based fluids to improve certain
properties, such as lubrication.

51

Inorganic chemicals perform a diverse number of functions in water-based fluids,
including: densification, contaminant precipitation, corrosion control, pore plugging and
alkalinity control. The Table below lists some of the most frequently used inorganic
chemicals.
CHEMICAL
FORMULA
DESCRIPTION
AMMONIUM BISULPHITE
CALCIUM BROMIDE
CALCIUM CHLORIDE
NH4HSO3
CaBr2
CaCl2
White crystals
White powder
White powder/flakes
CALCIUM HYDROXIDE
Ca(OH)2
White powder
MAGNESIUM CHLORIDE
POTASSIUM CHLORIDE
POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE
SODIUM BICARBONATE
SODIUM CHLORIDE
SODIUM HYDROXIDE
SODIUM SULPHITE
ZINC CARBONATE
MgCl2
KCl
KOH
NaHCO3
NaCl
NaOH
Na2SO3
ZnCO3
White crystals
White or pink crystals
White beads or flakes
White powder
White crystals
White beads or flakes
White crystals
White powder

52
FUNCTION
Oxygen scavenger
Heavy clear brines
Calcium treated fluids, heavy clear
brines, freeze point depression,
Flocculated water systems, alkalinity
control
Lime treated system, pH control
Potassium treated fluids
Alkalinity control in K+ systems
Treatment of cement contamination
Brine formulation, bridging agent
Alkalinity control
Oxygen scavenger
H2S scavenger
5.2.5.1.2. TYPES OF WATER-BASE(D) DRILLING FLUIDS

53
5.5.1.2.1. SPUD MUDS

Spud muds are used to drill surface holes. Usually the main function of a spud mud
is to clean the well from the cuttings. Surface hole JUMBO bits have bigger teeth than
normal bits, generating bigger cuttings. Because surface holes are of such large
diameter (up to 36"), annular velocities are low, even at maximum pump rates. This
means that spud mud viscosities have to be usually high.
When choosing a spud mud, the two main considerations are the formation pressure
gradient and the availability and type of make-up water. If surface formations are
underpressured, lost circulation is a problem and fluid densities must be kept low.
Occasionally abnormal pressures are encountered on top hole; in these cases, the
spud mud must retain the ability to suspend Barite.
Spud mud systems and components must conform to certain criteria; for example, the
products must be able to be mixed rapidly using simple recipes and the systems must
be economical.
Make-up water analysis is always essential prior to mixing any fluid system, especially
spud muds. Contaminants such as calcium or magnesium must be precipitated to
ensure a proper performance of mud components.
54

On land, the top hole is usually drilled with one of the following spud mud systems:
1. Native Solids
2. Bentonite/Lime
3. Bentonite
4. Extended Bentonite
The funnel viscosity (Marsh viscosity) of these systems is usually maintained at 4060 s/litre until casing depth is reached, where it might be raised to 80-120 s/litre to
facilitate running casing. In some areas, it is advisable to start with and maintain a
viscosity above 150 s/litre until the 11 and 9-inch drill collars are drilled down. The
improved cleaning characteristics reduces time spent laying down big collars when
difficulty is encountered making connections in incompetent formations such as gravel.
When lost circulation or gravel is encountered, the viscosity should be raised to 150
s/litre or higher.
Other important properties include pH, alkalinity and density. Spud muds are often
discarded after use.
55

Native solid systems are used in areas where "mud making" clays are encountered.
The well is spudded with fresh water and viscosity builds naturally. Caustic, lime or
bentonite may be added to these systems as required to increase the viscosity.
Bentonite/Lime slurries are often used on shallow surface holes. Usually about 60
kg/m3 of Bentonite are added to fresh water until a funnel viscosity of 35 - 40 s/litre is
obtained. The system is flocculated with small quantities of Lime, Ca(OH)2. The ratio of
Bentonite to Lime should be about 35:1.
Bentonite and extended Bentonite systems are also used for land-based drilling,
usually when the surface interval is longer than 2 - 3 days. The procedure is to increase
and maintain the pH of fresh water at 9 with about 0.75 kg/m3 Caustic Soda. Bentonite
is added to the desired funnel viscosity allowing time for hydration. Extending polymers
can be mixed with bentonite to increase its yield. The advantages of these systems
include: good cleaning and hydraulics, better wall plastering and hole stability, lower
solids concentrations and higher ROPs. If the low gravity solids content is kept low
enough (less than 150 kgf/m3) then the fluid can be used on the next hole section.

56
Offshore, the top of the hole is usually drilled with seawater and high viscosity
sweeps. Continuous viscosification becomes expensive since, when drilling without a
riser, there are no fluid returns to the rig. Initially, sweeps should be large enough to
cover 10-15 m of annulus and they should be pumped every 15 m or so of hole section
drilled.
When drilling through permafrost or gas hydrate bearing formations, sweeps
should be chilled first. If coolers are not available, viscosifiers should be added to cold
seawater just prior to pumping the sweep. It is advantageous and cost effective to use
readily dispersible polymers such as Guar Gum or Xanthan Gum.

57
5.5.1.2.2. WATER-BASED MUDS FOR DEEPER HOLE SECTIONS

When depth increases and hole conditions become more severe, more complex drilling
fluids have to be used. According to Eni E&P the various water-based drilling fluids
(WBMs) currently available for these more demanding applications are classified in
three basic categories:
non-inhibitive water-based drilling fluids (which do not contain chemicals capable
to interact with clays and shales);
inhibitive water-based drilling fluids (which, on the contrary, are able to react and
inhibit clays and shales);
water-based drilling fluids with low environmental impact.
Water-based muds can be prepared with fresh water (FW) or salt water (SW).
Most of WBMs contain bentonite (called also gel) as primary component; therefore all
WBMs, more or less markedly, possess viscosifying, fluid loss control and solids
suspension and carrying properties. These characteristics can be further improved by
addition of specific chemicals.
58

5.5.1.2.2.1. NON-INHIBITIVE WBMs
The drilling fluids systems, which according to Eni E&P classification, constitute the
category of non-inhibitive WBMs are the following:
Bentonite-Based Mud (Gel), FW-GE
Guar Gum Suspension, SW-GG
Bentonite-Based Mud with CMC Polymer, FW-GE-PO
Low-Weight (or Low-Solid) Mud with Bentonite Extenders, FW-LW
Lignosulphonate Mud, FW/SW-LS
Chromolignin Mud , FW/SW-CL
PAC Mud, FW/SW-PA
PHPA Mud, FW/SW-PC
59

The non-inhibitive WBMs are normally bentonite-based and are by far the most common
systems used in drilling. Since their inception in the 1920's, they have been used throughout the
world to successfully drill through many types of formations and conditions.
Ongoing research and development have provided a diverse array of proven complementing
components and chemicals for these systems. Hence, bentonite-based systems may be modified
to address one or several specific drilling fluid functions. These fluids often provide the most
economical combination of desired characteristics, imparting good suspension properties and
lifting capacity, favourable shear thinning characteristics and good fluid loss and wall building
properties.
In a fresh water environment, hydration forces are strong enough to separate natural bentonite
aggregates. Separation into individual unit layers is possible. Unit layers are about 10 thick and
between 100 and 1,000 2 wide . The shape of these hydrated platelets imparts resistance to flow
or viscosity to a clay suspension. When a shearing force (movement) is applied to a bentonite
suspension, the platelets align themselves in a direction parallel to the force. Resistance to flow
then decreases, explaining the shear-thinning nature of bentonite suspensions. This thin-flat
shape also provides good fluid loss characteristics to the suspension. Because the clay
platelets have surface charges, they align themselves to positions of minimum free energy when
the suspension is at rest; this accounts for the thixotropic properties exhibited by bentonite
suspensions.
60

Complementing components for these systems include most of the water-soluble products
previously listed.
For best results, fresh water should be used. Excessive salt (>5000 mg/litre) and hardness
interfere with the hydration and effectiveness of the bentonite. Soda ash should be used to treat
the calcium in the make-up water to less than 40 mg/litre.
The pH should be adjusted to 9.5 - 10.0 prior to adding bentonite. The bentonite should be added
slow enough that balling and clogging is eliminated. The initial yield depends in part on the quality
of the surface equipment. Normally the slurry becomes thicker with time and agitation.
Usually 60 - 70 kg/m3 of quality bentonite will produce a slurry with a funnel viscosity of 38 - 42
s/litre. This concentration provides a natural fluid loss of approximately 12 - 15 mlitre / 30 min. The
yield point of this system should be maintained at a sufficient value to provide effective hole
cleaning characteristics and barite suspension with additions of bentonite as required. In an
unweighted system, the plastic viscosity value in mPas is usually about twice the value of the
yield point in Pa. The plastic viscosity (PV) increases as the solids concentration in the system
increases. The PV value should be maintained as low as possible by running proper solids control
equipment and by dumping and dilution.

61

5.5.1.2.2.2. INHIBITIVE WBMs
The inhibitive water-based drilling fluids have been introduced when it was
expected to drill through reactive formations (clays and shales, salt) which could cause
hole instability problems by reacting with the aqueous phase of the mud.
The first system of this category to be used was a salt saturated drilling fluid; this
fluid was developed in the middle 1930's to drill through salt beds and salt domes in the
Permian Basin of West Texas and in the Gulf Coast. When extensive salt intervals are
penetrated with an undersaturated solution, the salt formation tends to solvate or enter
the solution often resulting in severely "washed-out" holes. The poor performance of
bentonite in salty environments led to the introduction of attapulgite clays as viscosifiers
in 1937. The inferior cake-building characteristics exhibited by these clays resulted in
drilling problems including differential sticking and sloughing shale. Starch was soon
found to be the most economical material for improving cake characteristics. Salt
saturated muds are still in use today, in particular when drilling through salt levels and
reactive formations.

62

Calcium-based drilling fluids gained widespread use in the Gulf Coast area during
the 1940's (Lime, Ca(OH)2 was the source of calcium). Although the reason for their
development remains obscure, the most likely explanation is that they exhibited
excellent tolerance to anhydrite (CaSO4) contamination, as commonly encountered in
East Texas. Gypsum was firstly used in Canada in the 1950's.
Modifications and subsequent development of products to control the system properties
have led to a widespread application of calcium-based systems worldwide.
Today calcium systems are still used for their inhibitive properties. The calcium ion
provides an economical source of shale hydration inhibition, when used in conjunction
with an encapsulator. Systems used for this purpose usually employ Gypsum (CaSO4
2 H2O), are of low pH and not deflocculated. Calcium-based systems are still often
used to drill through evaporate formations containing anhydrite. In this case the system
is usually deflocculated, with the pH running about 10.8. Again, Gypsum is usually the
source of calcium.

63

The primary inhibitive mechanism of these water based systems stems from the ability
of the solvated calcium ion to exchange. This occurs with the sodium ion in
montmorillonite clays and to a lesser extent the potassium ion in illites. The calcium ion,
being divalent, is able to satisfy 1 charge deficiency site on each of 2 clay platelets. In
the active fluid this promotes first clay flocculation, then aggregation. This same
mechanism inhibits the dispersive, hydration forces in formation clays.
Gypsum-based muds are more common than lime systems today because they are
more temperature stable (at temperatures in excess of 130C a reaction between
clays, calcium and hydroxyls can cause a simple cement to form and the drilling fluid
can actually solidify). Further, lime systems because of their high pH are less inhibitive
than gypsum systems when they are formulated with seawater. This is because the
clay inhibition effect normally realized from magnesium, supplied by the seawater, is
lost when magnesium is precipitated as magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2 starting at
about pH 10. A lime-based system using potassium hydroxide rather than sodium
hydroxide is still in use. These systems can work well: it is postulated that the calcium
ion stabilizes montmorillonite clays and the potassium ion stabilizes illitic clays. These
systems may use a polysaccharide deflocculant derived from starch.
64

The effect of the potassium ion on bentonite swelling was first studied in the mid
1950's. It was postulated that potassium has a hydrated diameter, which would favour
its exchange for other cations on clay surfaces.
KCl systems gained popularity in the 1970's as a superior method of drilling both
mechanically incompetent formations such as highly dipped shales and gumbo or mud
making formations. The inhibiting mechanisms of KCl are often augmented with an
encapsulating polymer. Polyacrylamide polymers are most often used for this purpose.
Today K-based systems are used, which incorporate non-chloride anions so as to
be more environmentally friendly; potassium carbonate (K2CO3), potassium acetate
(CH3COOK) or potassium formate (KCOOH) can be used instead of KCl. To make the
system completely K-based, K-CMC and K-PAC were developed (by Eni E&P) and
KOH is used to control alkalinity and pH.

65

Inhibitive water-based drilling systems can be grouped in the following categories:
Salt Saturated Drilling Fluid, FW/SW-SS
Lime-Based Drilling Fluid, FW/SW-LI
Gypsum-Based Drilling Fluid, FW/SW-GY
KCl Drilling Fluid, FW/SW-KC
AgipaK (K-CMC)-Based Drilling Fluid, FW-PK

66

5.5.1.2.2.3. INHIBITIVE WBMs WITH LOW ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
To meet environmental restrictions some drilling fluid systems have been modified with
the introduction in their formulation of chemicals characterized by a lower
environmental impact and higher biodegradability or new systems have been
developed on purpose.
Among the many types of water-based inhibitive systems, those more commonly used
in Eni E&P operations are the following:
Potassium Carbonate-Based Fluid, FW-K2
Potassium Acetate-Based Fluid, FW-KA
Potassium Formate-Based Fluid, FW-KF
Glycol-Based Fluid, FW/SW-GL
High Temperatures (>200oC) Water-Based Fluid, FW/SW-HT
Cation-Based Fluid, FW/SW-CT
Silicate-Based Fluid, FW/SW-SI

67

Among these fluids it is worth mentioning the following:
Potassium Carbonate Drilling Fluids: the fluids that contain KCl can pose some
problems in case of disposal in onshore operations; in fact, chloride ions, if present in
too high concentrations, make the waters resulting from exhausted muds dehydration
not conform to the current specifications for discharge in surface water bodies. For this
reason, chemicals which always release K+, but not Cl-, are widely used today, such as
potassium carbonate, potassium acetate and potassium formate. Substituting KCl with
K2CO3 in what are called potassium carbonate drilling fluids gives the following
advantages:
- CO32- ions create less problems in disposal operations and are less corrosive of Clions;
- K2CO3 is more soluble in water than KCl, gives more potassium ions and, having a
higher pH (>11), does not need additions of KOH and more efficiently neutralizes H2S
and CO2 influx.

68

Bentonite/PHPA Drilling Fluid: this fluid contains PHPA (partially hydrolyzed
polyacrylamides), which provides shale encapsulation. It protects water sensitive
shales from hydrating and sloughing into the wellbore.
Glycol-Based Drilling Fluids: many glycols (in particular, the propylene and
polyethylene glycols) possess a solubility which is inversely proportional to the
temperature; in other words their solubility decreases with increasing temperatures. It
happens, therefore, that these glycols are soluble in cold water, but when the solution is
heated two phases separate; the polyglycols now appear as small droplets, which can
occlude formation pores, preventing water to filtrate and react with water-sensitive
formations. The temperature at which the polyglycols separate from the water solution
is called cloud point temperature. This temperature can be modified as needed, acting
on polyglycols concentration, their molecular weight and presence of other compounds,
in particular of electrolytes (i.e. NaCl, KCl).

69

Cationic Drilling Fluids: these fluids have been proposed around the 80s. These
systems are prepared with cationic polymers (instead of the usual anionic polymers)
and exploit the fact that clays and shales are predominantly negatively charged (the
faces of clay platelets are naturally negative, while the broken edges present both
positive and negative charges). The cationic polymers, therefore, should react more
promptly with clays and shales than anionic polymers. Though cationic polymers could
ensure, at least in theory, a more efficient inhibition of clays with respect to the
conventional water-based muds, they are not frequently used because of their toxicity
and the incompatibility with most of the usual chemicals. The cationic polymers are low
molecular weight polyamines, frequently associated with cationic polyacrylamides. It
has been observed that polyamines can prevent clays hydration and swelling by
penetrating into the platelets; in some clays, the interlayer space is not wide enough to
allow the polyamines penetration, so that a certain initial hydration is required. Cationic
polyacrylamides, having a larger size, are adsorbed by electrostatic attraction onto the
outer surface of the clays encapsulating them.

70

Silicate-Based Drilling Fluids: in the mid-1990s, there was increasing pressure to
find a high performance water-based drilling fluid that would be an environmentally
acceptable alternative to oil-based drilling fluids. Known since the 1930s, after their
recent re-introduction in the North Sea, silicate-based drilling fluids have steadily
gained in popularity with Service and Oil Companies.
It is generally believed that as the silicate in the mud comes into contact with the
slightly acidic (pH 6-8) and multivalent-rich pore water, a localized gellation reaction,
coupled with a minor amount of precipitation, takes place to block both the influx of
mud and pressure into the formation. These reactions also lead to the sealing of
microfractures, cracks and rubble giving a decided advantage over any oil mud,
significantly reducing potential mud losses and costs.
Silicates are one of the few oil field chemicals that can be beneficial to the
environment. Soluble silicates are derived from, and ultimately return to nature, as
silica (SiO2) and soluble sodium and potassium compounds. Since these are among
the earths most common chemical components, they offer little potential for harmful
environmental effects.
71
5.5.2. OIL BASE(D) DRILLING FLUIDS

72
5.5.2.1. MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF OIL-BASED DRILLING FLUIDS

In many aspects an oil-based fluid can be described as an ideal fluid because the
interactions with the formation are minimal. The main advantages of this situation are
that the borehole is stable for an extended period of time and the cuttings can come to
the surface solids removal equipment in such a size range that a significant proportion
can be removed. This reduces the volume of fluid that is used.
The main feature is a continuous low viscosity oil phase. This reduces the reaction with
the polar or water wetting formations. The oil phase also contains solids such as the
weighting materials and drilled solids. Again, because of the nonpolar nature of the oil,
the viscosity effects of the solids are minimal.
Surfactants are used to make the solids oil wet and, more importantly, to emulsify the
brine phase which is added to the oil. The emulsifiers are a special group of chemicals
characterized by the presence, in the same molecule, of two contrasting groups, one
with strong attractive forces for water and the other attracting strongly to oil. To stabilize
inverted emulsions an oil soluble surfactant must be used.

73

The brine phase contains salts to control the activity of the brine preventing it from
being drawn from the fluid into the formation. This is a very important factor in
formulating an oil-based fluid. It is not just the oil that prevents the water entering the
formation, but also the high salinity of the brine phase.
Viscosity control is difficult in oil-based fluids and relies on the use of surfactant
treated bentonite. The viscosity mechanism is due to water adsorbed on the clay
platelets.
Fluid loss control is very well developed in oil-based fluids and relies on colloidal
particles including colloidal sized water droplets and differences in wettability. The fluid
loss control may be so well developed that the penetration rate is seriously limited.
Therefore, inverted systems can be designed to have high fluid loss characteristics.
Oil-based systems possess properties that are highly desirable and are not obtainable
with water-based systems. One of these is the very low level of reaction with the
formation, combined with minimal penetration of the fluid phase of the fluid into the
formation. This leads to maximum borehole stability over a prolonged time span.

74

Advantages
The advantages and related benefits of oil-based fluids may be summarized as follows:
A maximum level of shale hydration inhibition is realized. A properly conditioned oil mud should
have no effect on a shale formation. Therefore, gauge hole can be drilled through water-sensitive
shales. This leads to improved cement bonding and reduced cement requirements. Improved log
response and better cuttings removal are also beneficially affected.
The non-polar environment results in consistent fluid properties, low chemical maintenance costs,
stability under high temperature conditions, minimal effects on properties from drilled solids, good
resistance to salt and gypsum contamination and good protection of drill string against the corrosive
gases H2S and CO2.
Formulation for low fluid loss results in low torque, especially in deviated holes, minimized
differential sticking problems and low formation damage factors in oil reservoirs.
Formulation for high fluid loss results in high rates of penetration. The low solids content and
reduction in cuttings stickiness when using oil-based fluids also improves penetration rates.
More competent cuttings at surface increase shale shaker efficiency. Oil-based fluids have a
higher drilled solids tolerance, which can reduce dilution requirements.
Due to their stability and solids tolerance, oil mud can sometimes be used for more than one well.
Oil-based fluids have application on wells with bottom hole temperatures up to 300C.
Low aromatic oil-based fluids result in improved rig conditions, low odour, clean handling on the
rig, minimal effects on the marine environment, low viscosity imparting improved rheological
properties and high flash point giving extra safety.
Other advantages include: flexibility with respect to formulation and application, reduced corrosion
rates and a reduction in tubular stress fatigue.
75

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of oil-based fluids may be summarized as follows:
High make-up cost.
Environmental restrictions including cuttings & chemical waste disposal.
Extra fire prevention precautions are necessary.
Reduced rates of penetration in some areas.
Gas intrusion often results in barite settling.
Compressibility of the base oil makes volume and density estimations difficult.
Hole cleaning and cuttings suspension may be less effective.
Rubber materials (such as hoses or BOP components) may dissolve too rapidly in
oil-based fluids.
Some types of electric logs are ineffective in oil-based fluids.
Gas intrusions are more difficult to detect using oil-based fluids.
much MORE DIFFICULT KICK DANGER EVALUATION.

76

Today the oil-based muds are ordinarily manufactured in two basic types:
Oil-Based Drilling Fluids, in which (theoretically) no water has been added (though, in practice,
formulations with up to 10% of water are usually prepared because in this way better rheological
and filtration control properties are obtained).
Inverted-Emulsion Drilling Fluids, where oil always constitutes the continuous phase
but with a content in water, added with salts, varying from 10% up to a maximum of 50%.
Today the type of oil-based mud more frequently used is the Inverted-Emulsion type.
The following list presents some of the situations where inverted emulsion drilling fluids are used:
To drill troublesome shales.
To drill deep, hot holes.
To drill salt, anhydrite and gypsum zones.
To drill and core pay zones.
To drill through hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and carbon dioxide (CO2) containing formations.
To decrease drill string torque and drag when drilling directional holes.
As a packer fluid for corrosion control.
As a workover fluid.
To minimize the likelihood of differential sticking.
77
5.5.2.2. INVERTED-EMULSION DRILLING FLUID COMPONENTS

1. BASE OIL
The liquid phases of an inverted fluid are oil and emulsified water. Solids are contained solely in
the oil phase. Generally, the water content does not exceed 50% by volume of the liquid phase.
Therefore the properties of the oil greatly influence the overall properties of the fluid.
The essential function of the base oil is to provide a non-polar continuous phase and thus avoid the
polar interactions between the drilling fluid and the formation (hydration) that takes place in a waterbased fluid. It is important when drilling with an inverted emulsion that all solids, the formation and
the drilling equipment be wetted with oil only. Therefore, enough oil must be present in the system
to insure that all components are oil wet. Under normal conditions, inverted emulsion drilling fluids
containing a minimum of 70% oil should insure proper oil wetting at fluid densities up to 2.20
kg/litre.
Inverted emulsion fluids used for long time diesel oil as it provided stable emulsions at an
economical price, but now low toxicity oils are used in place of diesel oil because of their lower
environmental impact.
Base oils can be broken down into two categories:
synthetics
hydrocarbons.

78

1. BASE OIL
Synthetics are base oils that are synthesized from other molecules and are generally
very pure substances. Chemical industry has to thank so much oil industry!!!!
They include:
linear alpha olefins, simply LAO, (C12, C14, C16 or C18) made from ethylene. The
double bond is at the beginning of the molecule, in position;
polyalphaolefins, or PAO, derived from the polymerization (dimerization) of linear alpha
olefins;
isomerized (C12, C14, C16 or C18) or internal olefins, IO, again made from ethylene.
They have the same formula but different structure with respect to linear alpha olefins; in
fact, the carbon-carbon double bond is randomly isomerized along the carbon chain and
can be found in , , , etc. positions. This isomerisation drastically affects the viscosity
and the pour point of the synthetic oil;
esters are typically made from the esterification of vegetable oils with alcohols;
isoparaffins are made from paraffinic hydrocarbons by a series of reactions with
hydrogen and platinum catalysts. This also decreases the aromatic content of the base
oil.
79

1. BASE OIL
Hydrocarbon base oils come from refined crude oil feed stocks and are composed by paraffins with
a number of carbon atoms from C12 to C18 with the elimination of most aromatic components; they
are more frequently used than synthetic base oil because of their lower cost and higher availability.
Hydrocarbon base oils have preferably to possess the following characteristics:
high flash point: this is the temperature at which the vapours of the oil can form an explosive
mixture with air. Volatile hydrocarbons, such as gasoline, have a flash point as low as 5 oC. For the
base oil used in OBMs preparation a flash point > 61oC is normally required;
high fire point: it is the temperature at which the vapours ignite and burn. Values above 93 oC are
preferred though this parameter is not so critical in the OBMs manufacturing;
high bubble point: it represents the temperature at which the oil starts boiling; an oil with a low
bubble point will produce more vapours than an oil with a high bubble point;
high aniline point: it is the temperature at which a homogeneous mixture of aromatic compounds is
completely solubilised in a given volume of aniline. It indicates the tendency of an oil to degrade
elastomers: lower is the aniline point higher will the tendency of the oil to attack the elastomeric
components of drilling equipments
low content in aromatic components.

80

2. BRINE PHASE
The brine phase contributes to the rheological and filtration properties of the drilling fluid. The inclusion
of a brine or water phase in an inverted emulsion ensures that desirable non-Newtonian properties are
incorporated into the drilling fluid.
An important aspect of the brine phase is referred to as "activity". The term activity, in a drilling sense,
describes the tendency for the movement of water vapour from an area of low salt concentration to an
area of high salinity. The water activity (Aw) is measured as a fraction of the vapour pressure of water or
relative humidity.
In an inverted emulsion drilling fluid the brine phase is not isolated from the formation by the oil phase.
Water vapour may pass from the brine droplet into the formation or vice-versa depending upon the
osmotic pressure differential between the brine phase and the formation. The concentration of salt in
the brine phase will largely determine whether water will flow from the brine to the formation, from the
formation into the brine phase or whether there will be no net movement of water in either directions.
The ideal practice would be to have balanced activities between the formation water and the drilling
fluid brine phase. A balanced activity would mean that no net water migration between the formation
and brine phase would occur. The desirable balanced activity condition may not always be possible
during the drilling process since formation activities can be variable. In practice, the brine phase is often
run with a lower Aw value (higher salt concentration) than the values expected in the formation. This
results in a small net movement of water vapour from the formation into the drilling fluid.
81

3. EMULSIFIERS
Preparation of a stable water-in-oil emulsion is dependent upon two factors: the size of the brine
droplets and the efficiency of emulsifiers that produce and maintain the emulsion. Smaller water or
brine droplets are produced at higher rates of mixing or shear with a more stable, tighter emulsion
resulting. A tighter emulsion is generally more viscous than a less stable emulsion. The smaller brine
droplets in a tight emulsion are less likely to coalesce when they collide than larger droplets. It is the
function of the emulsifiers to isolate the brine droplets and prevent any coalescence. Emulsifiers are
also important in ensuring that solids in the inverted emulsion are preferentially wetted by the
continuous oil phase. Without oil wetting characteristics, the solids, especially barite, would become
water wet and the overall result would be poor emulsion stability.
inverted systems use a blend of emulsifiers formulated to ensure emulsion stability for any brine at a
range of brine concentrations. The primary emulsifier is an alkyl fatty acid emulsifier. Addition of lime
to the primary emulsifier converts an "inactive" emulsifier into its "active" or working form. The
hydrophilic portion of the active emulsifier form is intimately associated with the brine droplet at the oilbrine interface, while the hydrophobic portion of the emulsifier is dissolved in the continuous oil phase.
In addition to the primary emulsifier other emulsifiers called secondary emulsifiers are required to
produce a stable inverted emulsion for inverted drilling fluids. They usually contain OH, NH 2 and CONH2
functions that associate with the brine phase, being hydrophilic.

82

4. VISCOSIFIERS
The viscous properties of an inverted emulsion fluid are developed by: oil, emulsified water, oil wetted
solids (weighting agents such as barite and drilled solids) and specially processed bentonite treated
with quaternary amines (organoclays). Thus the viscous properties are determined to a significant
degree by the oil/water ratio and the fluid density. The level of viscosifier required will be decreased by
an increase in density and water content.
The major contribution to non-Newtonian rheology is derived from organoclays. These are bentonites in
which the inorganic exchangeable cations sodium, calcium and magnesium have been displaced by
quaternary amines such as dimethyl, di (hydrogenated tallow) ammonium chloride or dimethyl, benzyl,
ammonium chloride. These cationic surfactants change the wetting character of the bentonite from
being water wettable to being oil wettable.
The viscosity properties have to be developed by the dispersion of the stacks of clay platelets. This is
achieved to some extent by mechanical factors such as shear intensity, shear time and temperatures.
Polar compounds such as the aromatic molecules in diesel oil or water also play an important role.
Adsorption of these molecules opens up the sheets and aids the dispersion process. Water is required
to create the conductive medium in which ionic bonds and other polar interactions can develop between
the clay platelets.

83

5. FLUID LOSS CONTROL ADDITIVES
inverted emulsion drilling fluids typically have small fluid loss values under HT-HP conditions. There
are a number of reasons for the low fluid loss values. When the inverted fluid contained in the
annulus contacts the formation walls there is a small initial loss of oil to the formation. The brine
phase then acts as an impermeable membrane along the formation walls to retard the movement of
oil into the formation. In addition, the oil phase of inverted fluids does not readily enter the water-wet
formations due to a high interfacial tension between the oil and formation water.
In addition to the filtration control imparted by the oil and brine phases of inverted emulsions, inverted
systems employ supplemental fluid loss control materials. These materials are high temperature
stable and oil dispersible. Asphaltic bitumen is the most common fluid loss additive used. Amine
treated lignite may be used in the place of asphaltic bitumen.
Relaxed oil muds have been designed for fast drilling, with a HP-HT fluid loss as high as can be
tolerated. A relaxed oil mud has the same chemical composition as an ordinary oil-based fluid. The
difference being that the former fluid system is run on the borderline between functioning and
breaking down. To relax an oil mud and increase the fluid loss, base oil, CaCl2 brine or water must be
added to the mud without the usual additions of emulsifiers, oil wetting agents, etc. The additions of
the emulsifiers would change the mud system back towards a stable system. Relaxed oil muds
require rigorous pilot testing and continuous monitoring. In order to relax a conventional oil mud,
large increases in volume have to be expected due to the amount of dilution that is required.
84
5.5.2.3. TYPES OF OIL-BASED DRILLING FLUIDS
Among the various types of oil-based drilling fluids, the most common in Eni E&P use are
shown below:
Diesel Oil Inverted-Emulsion Drilling Fluid, DS-IE
Diesel Oil Inverted-Emulsion Relaxed Filtrate Drilling Fluid, DS-IE-RF
100% Oil-Based Drilling Fluid, DS/LT-IE-100
Low Toxicity Mineral Oil, Inverted-Emulsion Drilling Fluid, LT-IE
50/50 O/W Inverted-Emulsion Drilling Fluid, LT-IE-50
Ester-Based Inverted-Emulsion Drilling Fluid, EB-IE
Linear Paraffin-Based Inverted-Emulsion Drilling Fluid, LP-IE
Large amounts of alternative solutions are still now under study and validation.
It is worth recalling that the diesel oil based fluids are not in use today, since they have
been replaced during the last decade by low toxicity base oils.
85
5.5.3. GAS - BASE(D) DRILLING FLUIDS

86
5.5.3.1. TYPES OF GAS-BASED DRILLING FLUIDS
Low density fluids are sometimes called gas-based or reduced pressure drilling fluids.
The original purpose of these fluids was either to avoid loss of circulation or reduce the
amount of water lost into production zones. Improved rates of penetration and longer
bit life soon became well-known secondary benefits.
These systems can be classified as follows:
Gas or Air
Mist / Foam
Stiff / Stable Foam
Aerated Drilling Fluids

87
5.5.3.1. TYPES OF GAS-BASED DRILLING FLUIDS

Dry gas drilling was first patented in 1866 and is still used in many areas today. When
drilling with gas or air, enough volume must be supplied to generate annular velocities
in the range of 900 m/min. Care must be taken to avoid the risk of downhole fires and
explosions.
The injection into a gas of small amounts of drilling fluid or water containing a foaming
surfactant results in a mist or foam drilling fluid. The foaming surfactant mixes with
the formation water. This increases carrying capacity, permitting the removal of water
from the hole at lower annular velocities.
A stable foam is obtained by mixing: water, soda ash, bentonite, guar gum and a
foaming agent. Stiff foam fluids have the consistency of shaving cream. They are used
when: an air drilling operation encounters a water flow, for clean out and remedial jobs.
Aerated drilling fluids were first used in 1953 and various systems have been used to
inject air into the drilling fluid thus reducing hydrostatic head, such as: injecting air into
the standpipe or into the annulus, using a dual drill string-one within the other.

88
5.6. BASIC RHEOLOGY OF DRILLING FLUIDS

89

The fluids can be classified in two main rheological classes:
Newtonian fluids
non-Newtonian fluids
1. NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
The fluids, which follow Newton law, are defined as Newtonian fluids. For these
fluids, at constant pressure and temperature, the shear stress is directly proportional
to the shear rate. They start moving as soon as a stress, slightly above zero, is
applied to them. In a shear rate - shear stress diagram, the movement of these
fluids is represented by a straight line passing through the origin of the Cartesian
axes, whose slope is proportional to a quantity called viscosity; viscosity, at given
temperature and pressure conditions, is constant and independent by the shear
stress.

90
Viscosity describes completely the

behaviour of a Newtonian fluid and is
expressed by the following equation:
Shear stress
Constant Slope
= /
where:
= dynamic viscosity
= shear stress
= shear rate
Shear Rate (y)
Newtonian fluids are: water, glycerine, (and,

approximating, also diesel oil, gas).
(rpm or 1/s elsewhere)

91

2. NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
The fluids, which do not follow the Newton law, are called non-Newtonian fluids, due
to the fact that they do not exhibit a direct proportionality between shear rate and shear
stress. The shear stress, in fact, changes as the shear rate changes; for this reason
the ratio shear stress/shear rate is indicated as apparent viscosity.
The non-Newtonian fluids are classified in four main categories:
1) Fluids whose properties are independent by the time.
2) Fluids whose properties are dependent by the time.
3) Fluids with characteristics which are very similar to solid bodies.
4) Complex fluids.

92

1)
Fluids whose properties are time independent
These fluids are subdivisible in three classes:

a) Bingham plastic fluids
b) Pseudoplastic fluids & Dilatant fluids
c) Yield pseudoplastic fluids
a)
Bingham plastic fluids

The Bingham plastic fluids, on the shear stress/shear rate graph, are
represented by a straight line, which is not passing for the origin of the
Cartesian axes. This means that for starting their flow, it is necessary to apply
to them a given shear stress, whose value is known as yield value and its
position on the Y-axis as yield point.
The behaviour of a Bingham plastic fluid is described by the following equation:

= YV + p
being
> YV
where:
- p = straight line slope, known as plastic viscosity PV
93
(while: YV = 0 )

Examples of Bingham plastic fluids are: some aqueous suspensions of rocks,
slurries of dirty waters.

94

b.1) Pseudoplastic fluids
The pseudoplastic fluids are characterized by a curve passing through the origin of the
Cartesian axes and their behaviour is represented by the following relation, known as
Power Law or Ostwald & De Waele model:
= K ( )n
being
n<1
where:
- K = flow consistency index
- n = flow behaviour index
The term n shows of how much the behaviour of the fluid under consideration departs
from a Newtonian fluid; in fact:
if n = 1 the fluid is Newtonian and the equation becomes that of a Newtonian fluid with
the term K corresponding to the viscosity;
if n 1, as more n differs from 1 more non-Newtonian is the fluid behaviour; in
particular:
- when n<1, as in this case, the fluid is called pseudoplastic;
- when n>1 the fluid is said having a dilatant behaviour
The term K is similar to the viscosity; higher K, higher will be the viscosity of the fluid.
95
The apparent viscosity of a pseudoplastic fluid decreases with increasing shear rates.
Examples of pseudoplastic fluids are: solutions or fusions of polymers, paper paste
suspensions, pigments.
96

b.2) Dilatant fluids
The behaviour of a dilatant fluid is, in practice, the opposite of that of pseudoplastic
fluids. They are described by the same power law with the only difference, that in
this case n>1:
= K ( )n
being n > 1
where:
In this case, as already pointed out, the apparent viscosity increases with increasing
shear.
Dilatant fluids are: aqueous suspensions of starch and mica, shifting sands, beach
sands.

97

c) Yield pseudoplastic fluids
Yield pseudoplastic fluids have a yield point and apparent viscosity which have no
linear relationship with the shear rate, as already observed for pseudoplastic fluids.
In these fluids, the apparent viscosity decreases as the shear rate values increase;
the inclination of the flow curve, instead, continually decreases and very often tends
to a constant value at high shear rates. The rheological behaviour of a yield dilatant
fluid is the opposite to that of a yield pseudoplastic fluid, because its apparent
viscosity increases with increasing shear rates.
The theoretical model which represents in the best way the behaviour of these fluids
was conceived by Herschel - Bulkley, at the beginning of 1900 to simulate the
behaviour of rubber and benzene solutions. This model is expressed by this
equation
= o + K ( )n
being n < 1
where:
- o = yield point or yield stress
98

Again, K indicates the degree of fluid viscosity and, at times, is analogous to the
apparent viscosity, while n always represents the difference from a Newtonian fluid
behaviour.

99
2)
Fluids with time-dependent properties
There are many fluids, whose behaviour can not be represented by the models seen
previously for non Newtonian time-independent fluids. The apparent viscosity of
the non Newtonian time-dependent fluids is not only a function of shear rates,
but also by the time the stress is acting on them.
These fluids can be grouped in two categories:
Thixotropic fluids
Rheopectic fluids

100

a) Thixotropic fluids
The thixotropic fluids possess a structure whose breakage depends both by time
and by shear rate. Maintaining a constant shear rate, the shear stress decreases as
soon as the structure of the fluids starts breaking. The structurization of the fluid
restarts when the stress is removed, unless other external forces act on the system.
The extent of the DEAFD area is an
indication of the thixotropy entity. If we
maintain constant the shear rate after Point
A, the shear stress decreases along with the
AC straight line till the Point C is reached. No
other failure of the structure occur after this
Point C for that given shear rate. If the shear
rate is decreased, the corresponding shear
stress follows the path of the curve CHD,
where the Point D is the initial yield point; but
to come back again to the Point D infinite
curves can be followed depending on
particular circumstances.
Examples of these fluids are: drilling muds,
paints, inks.
101

b) Rheopectic fluids
The fluids of this category tend to build up a structure when they flow at low share rates;
in these conditions, their apparent viscosity increases with increasing shear rates. But
when a certain critical shear rate value is surpassed, their structure is destroyed and,
consequently, their apparent viscosity starts to decrease with increasing shear rates.
Rheopectic fluids are: bentonite suspension in sol state, gypsum in water suspensions.
3. Viscoelastic fluids
The viscoelastic fluids exhibit elastic and viscous characteristics: they, up to a certain
extent, are capable to deform elastically. Examples are: some liquid polymers, pitch.
4. Complex fluids
There are many fluids which do not belong to any of the categories mentioned up to now,
because their shear rate/shear stress relationship can not be described by a simple
mathematical equation. A modern drilling mud, due to its high compositional complexity
and the different behaviours it exhibits under varying temperature, time, shear rate
regimes, can be classified as a typical complex fluid.

102

MODELLING A DRILLING MUD
For what said up to now, it is evident that there is not only one model capable of
representing the wide variety of drilling mud formulations and the consequent
very different behaviour of these very complex systems.
In many cases, for sake of simplicity, the Bingham plastic fluid model is preferred
in particular when calculations have to be made by hand or when the equation
have to be transformed into graphs; in other circumstances the Ostwald & De
Waele model of the power law is adopted and in other situations the Herschel &
Bulkley model. But many other models, some very complex from a mathematical
point of view, could be used to represent a mud.
The choice of the model depends on its capacity to better interpolate the
experimental rheological values as obtained, for instance, by the Fann rotational
viscometer (which is the equipment widely used in the Oil Industry for the
rheological characterization of a drilling mud), on the evaluation if it is worth to use
a complex model without obtaining an evident improvement on pressure losses
calculation in the hydraulic circuit of a rig and its easiness of use.

103

CALCULATION OF THE RHEOLOGICAL PARAMETERS OF A DRILLING FLUID
1. BINGHAM PLASTIC FLUID MODEL
-
Plastic viscosity:
Yield point:
/2 [gf/100 cm2]
104

2. OSTWALD & DE WAELE PSEUDOPLASTIC FLUID (POWER LAW) MODEL
-
Flow behaviour index, n:
Flow consistency index, k:

105

3. HERSCHEL&BULKLEY YIELD PSEUDOPLASTIC FLUID MODEL
-
Yield point, o:
Flow behaviour index, n:
Flow consistency index, k:

106

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CHAPTER

05. DRILLING FLUIDS PROGRAMME

5.1-2. DRILLING FLUIDS

(cost: up to 35% of the project)

05. DRILLING FLUIDS PROGRAMME

05. DRILLING FLUIDS PROGRAMME

5.2.2. MISSION OF THE DRILLING FLUIDS

5.2.2. FUNCTIONS OF DRILLING FLUIDS

FACING FORMATION PRESSURES - SUPPORTING SPECIAL AIMS

05. DRILLING FLUIDS PROGRAMME

5.2.2. FUNCTIONS OF DRILLING FLUIDS

CUTTINGS REMOVAL AND TRANSPORTATION UP TO THE SURFACE

5.2.2. FUNCTIONS OF DRILLING FLUIDS

05. DRILLING FLUIDS PROGRAMME

5.2.2. FUNCTIONS OF DRILLING FLUIDS

05. DRILLING FLUIDS PROGRAMME

5.2.2. FUNCTIONS OF THE DRILLING FLUIDS

05. DRILLING FLUIDS PROGRAMME

5.2.2. FUNCTIONS OF DRILLING FLUIDS

DRILL STRING FATIGUE AND WEAR REDUCTION

05. DRILLING FLUIDS PROGRAMME

5.2.2. FUNCTIONS OF DRILLING FLUIDS

05. DRILLING FLUIDS PROGRAMME

5.2.2. FUNCTIONS OF DRILLING FLUIDS

5.2.3. MAIN DRILLING FLUID COMPONENTS

05. DRILLING FLUIDS PROGRAMME

5.2.3. MAIN DRILLING FLUID COMPONENTS

Salts/Ionic Compounds (NaOH, KOH,

Polymers (anionic, non-ionic, cationic)

Aid corrosion control

5.2.3. MAIN DRILLING FLUID COMPONENTS

Increase mud density

Barite, Hematite, Calcium

Fibres, Flakes, Resins,

Reduce torque and drag

Reduce mud density (***)

Graphite, Teflon Beads,

05. DRILLING FLUIDS PROGRAMME

5.2.4. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF DRILLING FLUIDS

5.2.4. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF DRILLING FLUIDS

5.2.4. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF DRILLING FLUIDS

5.2.4. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF DRILLING FLUIDS

05. DRILLING FLUIDS PROGRAMME

5.2.4. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF DRILLING FLUIDS

05. DRILLING FLUIDS PROGRAMME

5.2.5. DRILLING FLUID possible CLASSIFICATION

OIL BASED MUDS

Salt Saturated Mud

Diesel Oil I.E. Mud

05. DRILLING FLUIDS PROGRAMME

5.2.5.1. WATER BASE(D) DRILLING FLUIDS

05. DRILLING FLUIDS PROGRAMME

5.2.5.1.1. MAIN COMPONENTS

05. DRILLING FLUIDS PROGRAMME

5.2.5.1.1.1. MAKE-UP WATER

05. DRILLING FLUIDS PROGRAMME

5.2.5.1.1.2. WEIGHTING AGENTS

05. DRILLING FLUIDS PROGRAMME

5.2.5.1.1.2. WEIGHTING AGENTS

05. DRILLING FLUIDS PROGRAMME

05. DRILLING FLUIDS PROGRAMME

05. DRILLING FLUIDS PROGRAMME

05. DRILLING FLUIDS PROGRAMME