Physics in Medicine

PH3708
Dr R.J. Stewart

Scope of Module
Cardio-vascular system
Fluid flow in pipes, circulation system, pressure

Membranes
Osmosis and solute transport

Transmission of electrical signals

Nerves, ECG

Optical Fibres and Endoscopy

Scope of Module
Ultrasound
Imaging and Doppler measurements

Radioisotope imaging and radiology

X-ray generation and imaging
NMR imaging

Module Resources
Web Page:
http://www.rdg.ac.uk/physicsnet/units/3/ph3708/ph3708.htm

Books:
Good general books:
Physics of the Body, Cameron, Skofronick and
Grant
Medical Physics, J.A. Pope
Other more specialised books are given in the unit
description and will be referred to where necessary

Cardiovascular System
Physics of the Body, Cameron, Skofronick
and Grant, Ch. 8
In considering the circulation of blood, one
essentially considers the flow of a viscous
fluid through pipes of different diameters
Define:
Viscosity: arises from frictional forces associated
with the flow of one layer of liquid over another

Viscosity
Consider a circular cross section pipe:
Flow through pipe due to pressure difference
Assume: flow at walls of pipe = 0, maximum in
the centre (arrows in figure represent velocity)
Frictional force per unit area, F, proportional to
x

the velocity gradient

v(r )
dv
F
F
dr
Viscosity

Viscosity

The slower moving fluid outside the central (shaded) region exerts a
viscous drag across the cylindrical surface at radius r. For a length x
of pipe the area of surface is 2rx. The force points in the opposite
direction to the direction of fluid motion and is of magnitude
2rx |dv/dr

|
2r

2a

Volume Flow Rate

The average flow from the heart is the
stroke volume (the volume of blood ejected
in each beat) x number of beats per second.
This is ~ 60 (ml/beat) x 80 (beats/min) =
4800 ml/min

Volume Flow Rate

Poiseulles Equation
Volume flow rate, Q, related to pressure
difference P, length l and radius a by:
a 4
Q
P
8l

a
P1

P2
l
P= P1 - P2

Volume Flow Rate

Often convenient to define a resistance, R
to flow, such that P=QR
R1

Series
R2

Parallel
R3

P1

P2

P3

P= P1 + P2 + P3
=QR1+QR2+QR3
=QR
R=R1+R2+R3

R1,Q1
R2,Q2

Q=Q1+Q2
=P/R1+P/R2
=P/R
R=1/R1+1/R2

Resistance R
The resistance decreases rapidly as a
increases
R = P/Q = 8 l / a4
The units of R are Pa m-3 s
A narrowing of an artery leads to a large
increase in the resistance to blood flow,
because of 1/ a4 term.

Volume Flow Rates

Effect of restrictions and blockages:
Series, whole flow is reduced/stopped
Parallel, flow partially reduced, increased in
other parts of the network

Transport System
A closed double-pump system:

Left side of heart

Lung
Circulation
Right side of heart

Systemic
Circulation

Transport System
Structure of the Heart
Aorta
Superior vena cava
(from upper body)

Inferior vena cava

(from lower body)

Transport System
Branching of blood vessels
Ateries branch into arterioles, veins into
venules
Arteries

Arterioles

Heart
Capillaries
Veins
Venules

Transport System
Capillaries
Fine vessels penetrating
tissues
Main route for gas/nutrient
exchange with tissues
About 190/mm2 in cut
muscle surface
Sphincter muscles (S)
control flow

Transport System
Blood is in capillary bed for a few seconds
1Kg of muscle has a volume of about
106 mm3 (density of muscle ~1gm/cm3 or
1000 Kg/m3 ), hence there are about
190km of capillaries with a surface area of
~12 m2 assuming a typical capillary is
20m in diameter.

Pressures
Large pressure variations throughout the
system (note 1 kPa = 7.35 mm Hg)
17 kPa (125 mmHg) after left ventricle
2 kPa (15 mm Hg) after systemic system
3.4 kPa (25 mmHg) after right ventricle
Blood pressure monitor on arm measures
120 mmHg systole and 80 mmHg diastole for a
healthy young person

Pressure

Pressure
Effect of gravity on pressure

Density of blood ~ 1.04x103 kg/m3

Distance heart-head~ 0.4 m
Heart-feet ~ 1.4 m
9.3 kPa
P = gh

13.1 kPa

13.3 kPa

13.3 kPa 13.2 kPa

26.7 kPa

Pressure
Consequences
Varicose veins
Normally (e.g., during walking) muscle action helps
return venous blood from the legs
One-way valves in leg veins to prevent backward
flow
Defective valves means pooling of blood in leg
veins

Pressure
Acceleration
Consider upward acceleration, a - augments gravity
effective gravity = a+g
Pressure difference = (a+g)h

Pressure at head reduced.

E.g., a = 3g
Pheart-head = 1.04x103 x4gx0.4 = 16 kPa
Pressure from heart = 13.3 kPa head receives no blood
- Blackout!

Rate of blood flow

Blood leaves heart at ~ 30 cm/s
In capillaries, flow slows to ~ 1mm/s
Surprising - continuity should imply higher
flow
Recall individual capillaries only ~20m in
diameter, but very many hence total cross
section equivalent to a tube 30 cm in diameter
using estimate of 225 x 106 capillaries in body

Effect of Constrictions
Bernoulli effect
Narrowing of tube gives increased velocity, but
reduced pressure

Increasing velocity at obstruction leads to a

transition from laminar to turbulent flow

Effect of Constrictions
Transition from laminar to turbulent flow
characterised by Reynolds Number, K

For many fluids,

K ~1000
e.g, in the aorta
(R~1cm), Vc ~ 0.4m/s

Qc

t
n
e
l
u
Turb

Lam
i na
r

Vc = K/R

Flow rate

Critical velocity
Vc = Qc/A

Pressure

Effect of Constrictions
Apparent that one can get a rapid increase
in flow as a function of pressure in the
laminar region, but relatively slow in
turbulent region
During exercise, 4-5 time increase in blood
flow required
Obstructed vessel may not be able to deliver
Chest pains and heart attack!

Further Reading
All in Physics of the Body, Cameron,
Skofronick and Grant, Ch. 8,
Measurement of blood pressure
Section 8.4

Physics of heart disease

Section 8.10