Social Stratification

and Social Inequality

American Society

Social Stratification
Social Stratification

American Society

the ranking of people

into a hierarchy in
which the resources
considered valuable by
society are unequally
distributed

Types of Stratification Systems

Systems vary based on degree of mobility

Closed stratification systems

Open stratification systems

Caste systems

Membership in ranks is based on heredity

Different ranks are rigidly segregated
Marriage between ranks is forbidden

American Society

Hindu Caste System

Four caste categories
1. Brahmins - priests and scholars
2. Kshatriyas - ruling and warrior caste
3. Vaisyas - the merchants
4. Shudras - menial workers and artisans
5. Harijans untouchables

Question

Which of the following is not

characteristic of caste systems?
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

based on birth
marriage is exogamous with respect to caste
caste is hereditary
ranked with respect to one another
a person cannot move from one caste to another

Answer : b
That marriage is exogamous with respect

to caste is not characteristic of caste

systems.

Changes in the Caste System

There have been important changes in the

caste system in the past 50 years.

Caste ranking appears to be less sharply

defined within the higher caste categories.
Caste is less relevant for occupations.:
Differences in caste are now referred to in
public as cultural differences, rather than as a
hierarchy based on spiritual purity and
pollution.

Types of Stratification Systems

Estate systems
Social position is strongly influenced by heredity
Land ownership and political and military power
are also important
Class system

Boundaries between classes are permeable

Socioeconomic position depends on achievement
Opportunities to change social position are fairly
frequent

American Society

Theories of Stratification:
Functionalist Theory

You will remember that functionalist theory understands society

as a system or organism
As functionalists, Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore contended
that stratification was a necessity for society because:
Society has numerous positions that must be fulfilled if it is to
function properly
Some positions, however are more important for the maintenance of
society (e.g., physicians)
Finally, some positions require special talents that are not generally
prevalent in the population

Hence, functionally important positions and/or positions

requiring rare talent are rewarded most highly

Functionalist Theory of Stratification

1.

Societies are stratified because inequality fulfills an important need of

all social systems.

2.

Society must distribute its members among the various positions in

society.

3.

People have to be motivated to fill certain positions and perform their

duties.

4.

Filling the positions within a social structure is a basic need of any

society. This is accomplished through the unequal distribution of
rewards.
American Society

Criticisms of Functional
Theory

Ex Post Facto Judgment of Functional

Importance of Positions
Critics question the functional importance of
certain highly rewarded positions such as
actors and sports figures, in contrast to
positions such as school teachers or social
workers

The Stratification System itself Inhibits

Talent and Abilities
Many barriers are placed in the way of
individuals from lower classes to keep them
from competing effectively

Theories of Stratification: Marxist Conflict

Theory

Suggests that social stratification is determined by

the the relations of production
bourgeoisie--capitalists who own the means of
production
proletariat--wage laborers who sell their labor to
bourgeoisie

Interests of these two classes are intrinsically

opposed
Power of the capitalists allows them to impose their will
and realize their interests
According to Marx, the proletariat will eventually
develop a class consciousness, and ultimately
overthrow the capitalists

Comparing Functional and Conflict Theories

Functional Theory

Conflict Theory

Stratification is universal, necessary

and inevitable

Stratification is universal, but not

necessary or inevitable

The social system shapes the

stratification system

The stratification system shapes the

social system

Stratification arises from societal need

for integration and coordination

Stratification arises from group

competition and conflict

Stratification facilitates the optimal

functioning of society

Stratification impedes the optimal

functioning of society

Stratification is an expression of
commonly shared social values

Stratification is an expression of the

values of powerful groups

Power is distributed legitimately in

society

Power is distributed illegitimately in

society

Tasks and rewards are allocated

equitably

Tasks and rewards are not allocated

equitably

The economic dimension is subordinate

to other dimensions of society

The economic dimension is paramount

in society

Stratification systems generally change

Stratification systems change through

Dimensions of Stratification
Webers analysis is based on three

dimensions of stratification

Wealth
Social

Socioeconomic Status
Describes

a persons
location based on all three
dimensions

American Society

classes

Prestige
Status

groups

Power
Authority
Parties

Consequences of Stratification
Stratification systems have

multiple consequences for

peoples lives.
Educational
Achievement
Health
Status Inconsistency
Self-esteem
American Society

Social Mobility
Social Mobility

the movement of
people from one
position to another in
a stratification system
horizontal and
vertical social
mobility

American Society

Extent of Social Mobility

Two Measures of Vertical Mobility

Intergenerational mobility (generational mobility)

Intragenerational mobility (career mobility)

Social mobility has increased since World War II.

Much upward social mobility in the 20 th century

was structural.

Mobility was due to basic changes in occupational and

social structures from industrialization.
American Society

Types of Social Mobility

Direction of Movement
Across

Up or Down

Horizontal Mobility

Vertical Mobility

Time Frame for Mobility

Single Generation

Two or More Generations

Intra-generational
Mobility

Inter-generational
Mobility

Prestige Rankings of Various

Occupations

Occupation

Score

Physician

86

College Professor

78

Lawyer

72

High School Teacher

66

Sociologist

65

Police Officer

60

Social Worker

52

Carpenter

43

Sales Clerk

29

Garbage Collector

13

Class Structure in the U.S.

The structure of the U.S. includes
Upper

class
Upper-middle class
Lower-middle class
Working class
Lower class
American Society

Occupational and Educational Correlates of Social Class

Social Class

Occupation

Education

Upper Class

Corporate Ownership; Liberal Arts education

at elite schools
Upper-Echelon
Politics;
Honorofic positions

Upper-Middle Class

Professional and
College and graduate
technical fields;
school training
managers; proprieters

Lower-Middle Class

Clerical and sales;

small business
owners; semiprofessionals

High School; some

college

Working Class

Skilled and
semiskilled manual
labor; crafts; foremen

Some or all of high

school

Unskilled labor;
service work; farm
labor; private

Some or all of high

school

Lower Class

Income Distribution Across the

Social Classes
Quintile

Average Income

Percentage of All
Income

$142,021 +

21.5%

$79,372 +

49.4%

Fourth Quintile

$50,520 - $79,374

23.2%

Third Quintile

$32,000 - $50,519

14.9%

Second Quintile

$17,196 31,999

8.9%

Poorest Quintile

Less than $17,196

3.6%

Wealthiest 5%
Wealthiest Quintile
(20%)

Poverty

What percentage of people live in poverty

today?
As explained on the following several slides:
Poverty does not affect all segments of the
population equally
There is disagreement among social scientists
about how to measure poverty, and hence
disagreement about how much poverty exists in
the United States

Povertys Biggest Victims:

Ethnicity

Povertys Biggest Victims:

Gender
Female headed families are greatly
overrepresented among those in poverty
Female householders without husbands had
average annual income of $23,732 in 1999
Male householders without wives had
average annual income of $37,396 in 1999

This phenomenon has come to be called

the feminization of poverty

How Do We Count the Poor?

The official poverty index was developed

by the Social Security Administration in
1964
It was based on earlier studies that found that
families of 3 or more people typically spent
about 1/3 of their budget on food
The poverty index is thus based on the annual
cost of a frugal but adequate diet x 3

The threshold of poverty will thus depend

on the number of individuals living in a
household

Threshold of Poverty, 1999

Size of Household

Poverty Threshold

1 person (under 65)

1 person (over 65)

$8,501
$7,990

2 people (under 65)

2 people (over 65)

$11,214
$10,075

3 people

$13,290

4 people

$17,029

5 people

$20,127

6 people

$22,727

7 people

$25,912

8 people

$28,967

9 people

$34,417

Myths About the Poor

Myth #1: People are poor because they are lazy

Fact: About half of the poor are not of working age; most of those of working
age are either working or looking for work

Myth #2: Most poor people are African-American and most African-Americans are
poor

Fact: Most poor people are white; about 28% of African-Americans are poor

Myth #3: Most of the poor are single mothers with children
Fact: Female-headed families with children represent about 44% of the poor

Myth #4: Most people in poverty live in the inner city

Fact: Less than 22% of the poor live in central cities

Myth #5: Welfare programs are straining federal budgets

Fact: Only about 14% of the federal budget went to welfare programs in 1996,
compared to 43% that went to other social assistance programs such as social
security and Medicare

Types of Social Mobility

Direction of Movement
Across

Up or Down

Horizontal Mobility

Vertical Mobility

Time Frame for Mobility

Single Generation

Two or More Generations

Intra-generational
Mobility

Inter-generational
Mobility

Prestige Rankings of
Various Occupations
Occupation

Score

Physician

86

College Professor

78

Lawyer

72

High School Teacher

66

Sociologist

65

Police Officer

60

Social Worker

52

Carpenter

43

Sales Clerk

29

Garbage Collector

13

Click Image to go to
Occupational
Outlook Handbook

Theories of Stratification:
Functionalist Theory

You will remember that functionalist theory

understands society as a system or organism
As functionalists, Kingsley Davis and Wilbert
Moore contended that stratification was a
necessity for society because:
Society has numerous positions that must be fulfilled if
it is to function properly
Some positions, however are more important for the
maintenance of society (e.g., physicians)
Finally, some positions require special talents that are
not generally prevalent in the population

Hence, functionally important positions and/or

positions requiring rare talent are rewarded most
highly

Criticisms of Functional
Theory

Ex Post Facto Judgment of Functional

Importance of Positions
Critics question the functional importance of
certain highly rewarded positions such as
actors and sports figures, in contrast to
positions such as school teachers or social
workers

The Stratification System itself Inhibits

Talent and Abilities
Many barriers are placed in the way of
individuals from lower classes to keep them
from competing effectively

Theories of Stratification:
Marxist
Conflict
Theory
Suggests
that social
stratification is

determined by the the relations of

production

bourgeoisie--capitalists who own the means

of production
proletariat--wage laborers who sell their
labor to bourgeoisie

Interests of these two classes are

intrinsically opposed

Power of the capitalists allows them to impose

their will and realize their interests
According to Marx, the proletariat will
eventually develop a class consciousness,
and ultimately overthrow the capitalists

Comparing Functional and Conflict Theories

Functional Theory

Conflict Theory

Stratification is universal, necessary

and inevitable

Stratification is universal, but not

necessary or inevitable

The social system shapes the

stratification system

The stratification system shapes the

social system

Stratification arises from societal need

for integration and coordination

Stratification arises from group

competition and conflict

Stratification facilitates the optimal

functioning of society

Stratification impedes the optimal

functioning of society

Stratification is an expression of
commonly shared social values

Stratification is an expression of the

values of powerful groups

Power is distributed legitimately in

society

Power is distributed illegitimately in

society

Tasks and rewards are allocated

equitably

Tasks and rewards are not allocated

equitably

The economic dimension is subordinate

to other dimensions of society

The economic dimension is paramount

in society

Stratification systems generally change

Stratification systems change through

Social Class in the United

States

Sociologists are not agreed as to how

social classes should be distinguished
Most commonly, 5 classes are identified:

Upper Class
Upper-Middle Class
Lower Middle Class
Working Class
Lower Class

Each of these classes represent differences

in both income and lifestyle characteristics

Occupational and Educational Correlates of Social Class

Social Class

Occupation

Education

Upper Class

Corporate Ownership; Liberal Arts education

at elite schools
Upper-Echelon
Politics;
Honorofic positions

Upper-Middle Class

Professional and
College and graduate
technical fields;
school training
managers; proprieters

Lower-Middle Class

Clerical and sales;

small business
owners; semiprofessionals

High School; some

college

Working Class

Skilled and
semiskilled manual
labor; crafts; foremen

Some or all of high

school

Unskilled labor;
service work; farm
labor; private

Some or all of high

school

Lower Class

Income Distribution Across the

Social Classes
Quintile

Average Income

Percentage of All
Income

$142,021 +

21.5%

$79,372 +

49.4%

Fourth Quintile

$50,520 - $79,374

23.2%

Third Quintile

$32,000 - $50,519

14.9%

Second Quintile

$17,196 31,999

8.9%

Poorest Quintile

Less than $17,196

3.6%

Wealthiest 5%
Wealthiest Quintile
(20%)

Poverty

Approximately 12 million people officially

live in poverty
As explained on the following several
slides:
Poverty does not affect all segments of the
population equally
There is disagreement among social scientists
about how to measure poverty, and hence
disagreement about how much poverty exists
in the United States

Visit PovertyNet Online

Povertys Biggest Victims:

Ethnicity

Povertys Biggest Victims:

Gender
Female headed families are greatly
overrepresented among those in poverty
Female householders without husbands had
average annual income of $23,732 in 1999
Male householders without wives had
average annual income of $37,396 in 1999

This phenomenon has come to be called

the feminization of poverty

How Do We Count the Poor?

The official poverty index was developed

by the Social Security Administration in
1964
It was based on earlier studies that found that
families of 3 or more people typically spent
about 1/3 of their budget on food
The poverty index is thus based on the annual
cost of a frugal but adequate diet x 3

The threshold of poverty will thus depend

on the number of individuals living in a
household

Threshold of Poverty, 1999

Size of Household

Poverty Threshold

1 person (under 65)

1 person (over 65)

$8,501
$7,990

2 people (under 65)

2 people (over 65)

$11,214
$10,075

3 people

$13,290

4 people

$17,029

5 people

$20,127

6 people

$22,727

7 people

$25,912

8 people

$28,967

9 people

$34,417

Myths About the Poor

Myth #1: People are poor because they are lazy

Fact: About half of the poor are not of working age; most of those
of working age are either working or looking for work

Myth #2: Most poor people are African-American and most

African-Americans are poor

Fact: Most poor people are white; about 28% of African-Americans

are poor

Myth #3: Most of the poor are single mothers with children

Fact: Female-headed families with children represent about 44% of

o
the poor

Myth #4: Most people in poverty live in the inner city

Fact: Less than 22% of the poor live in central cities

Myth #5: Welfare programs are straining federal budgets

Fact: Only about 14% of the federal budget went to welfare
programs in 1996, compared to 43% that went to other social
assistance programs such as social security and Medicare

How unequally are income and

wealth distributed in the U. S.?
Myths

Economic resources were widely distributed prior to

industrialization.
Since the Great Depression government programs
have redistributed the existing wealth.

Reality

The top 20% of households have 80% of the wealth.

In the last 30 years the rich have gotten richer and
the poor have gotten poorer.

American Society

Theories of Stratification
The Functionalist Perspective

Argues that stratification exists because it

makes some contribution to the ongoing
maintenance of society
Based on the work of Davis and Moore

The Conflict Perspective

Argues that society involves a constant struggle

between social classes over scarce resources
American Society

Theoretical Thumbnail: What Stratification

Does to Society
Perspective

Focus

Insights

Functionalist

How
stratification
benefits
society

The more rewarding a position is, the more

motivated people are to work hard to acquire the
education and skill it requires.

Conflict

How
stratification
harms society

Stratification limits opportunities for the

underprivileged, preserves injustices, and
provokes unrest.

Symbolic
interactionist

How
stratification
influences
interactions

In their interactions, higher-status people show

off power while lower-status ones appear polite
or respectful.

Global Stratification
In the social system called global stratification

some nations are in higher or lower classes.

The consequences are poverty, inequality,
child exploitation, and slavery.
The disparity between rich and poor countries
is extreme.

Dependency Theory
Dependency Theoryrich nations exploit poor

ones for power and commercial gain.

A legacy of colonialism
Western banks dont lend enough money and
when they do its on bad terms.
Poor countries contribute to the problem
themselves through corruption.
Theory fails to explain economic boom in East
Asian countries.

Todays Controversy: Is it Really

Easy to End World Poverty?
Economist Jeffrey Sachs claims that 1.1 billion

people in the world are extremely poor,

struggling to survive with an income of less than
$1 a day.
Says this extreme poverty can be eradicated
through the Big Five development interventions
Argues that extreme poverty can end if these
strategies were followed.
Critics, however, dont think it is this easy to end
global poverty.