DEVELOPING PEOPLE

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Training and development

Types of training
Benefits of training and development
Need for training
Planning and strategising for training
Needs assessment
Setting training objectives
Training design and implementation
Transfer of training (learning)
Types of training
Training evaluation
Integrating training with PMS and compensation

TRAINING: Definition
Training is a process whereby people acquire capabilities to aid in

the achievement of organizational goals.

- Mathis And Jackson

Training is a process of teaching a new employees the basic skills

to perform their jobs

- Garry Dessler
A planned process to modify attitude , knowledge or skill behaviour

through learning experience to achieve effective performance in an

activity or range of activities. Its purpose, in the work situation, is
to develop the abilities of the individual and to satisfy the current
and future needs of the organization.
-Manpower service
commission,1981a

DEVELOPMENT
Definition:Efforts made to improve employees ability to handle a variety of
assignment.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT :
Development is broader in scope and focuses on individuals gaining new
capabilities useful for both present and future jobs.

Focus
Focus

Time
Time
frame
frame
Effective
Effective
Measure
Measure

TRAINING
TRAINING
Learn
specific
Learn specific
behaviours and actions;
behaviours and actions;
demonstrate
demonstratetechniques
techniques
and
andprocesses
processes
Shorter
Shorterterm
term

Performance appraisals,
Performance appraisals,
cost benefit analysis,
cost benefit analysis,
passing tests , or
passing tests , or
certification
certification

DEVELOPMENT
DEVELOPMENT
Understood information
Understood information
concepts and context; develop
concepts and context; develop
judgment; expand capacities
judgment; expand capacities
for assignment.
for assignment.

Longer
Longerterm
term

Qualified people available

Qualified people available
when needed; promotion from
when needed; promotion from
within possible; HR-based
within possible; HR-based
competitive advantage
competitive advantage

TYPES OF TRAINING
Required and regular training : company with various mandated

legal requirements (e.g., occupational safety, EEO) and serves as

training for all employees (new employee orientation)

Job/technical training: enable employees to perform their jobs,

tasks and responsibilities well (e.g. product knowledge, technical

process and procedures, customer relations)

Interpersonal and problem solving training : address both

operational and interpersonal problems and seeks improve

organizational working relationships.

Development and innovative training : provides a long term

focus to enhance individual and organizational capabilities for the

future (e.g. business practice, executive development, organizational
change)

 Active and passive learning : traditional training is a one way

learning process whereby a passive learner receiving information from a

lecturer, tutor or instructor.

Interactive learning methods : there are a wide variety of

interactive learning techniques, some of them adoptions of one way

approaches Interactive computer learning packages, video and audio tapes
Workshops
Case studies
Role play
Simulations
Problem solving

BENEFITS OF TRAINING
1. Benefits To The Organization

Improved profitability.
Improved job knowledge at all level of organization.
Improved morale of the workforce.
Helps people identify with organizational goal.
Helps create a better corporate image.
Fosters authenticity, openness and trust.
Improves relationship between employees.
Aids in organizational development.
Learns from the trainee.
Helps prepare guidelines for the work.
Contd..

BENEFITS OF TRAINING (Contd..)

Aids in setting organizational policies.
Provides information for future needs.
More effectiveness in decision making and problem solving.
Development for promotion from within
Development of leadership, motivation, loyalty etc.
Increase productivity and quality of work
Keeps the cost down in any area.
Develops a sense of responsibility.
Improves labor-management relation.
Reduces outside consulting cost.
Creates an appropriate climate for growth and communication.
Helps employees adjust to change.

2.

Benefits To Individual, Thereby To Organization.

Better decision making and effective problem solving

Encouragement and achievement of self-development and
self-confidence.
Better stress handling, tension, frustration and conflict.
Improvement in leadership, knowledge, skills and attitude.
Increased job satisfaction and recognition.
Satisfies personal needs of trainer and trainee.
Provides avenue for growth
Develops a sense of growth in learning.
Eliminates fear in attempting new task

3. Benefits in personnel and human relation:

Intra and Inter Group
Improves communication between individual and groups.
Aids in orientation of new employees.
Provides information on equal opportunity and affirmative

action.
Provides information on other government laws and policies.
Improves inter personal skills.
Makes organisational policies, rules and regulations viable.
Improves morale.
Builds cohesiveness in groups.
Provides a good climate for learning, growth, and coordination.
Makes the organistaion a better place to work and live.

THE NEED FOR TRAINING

Companies initially used to emphasize only on production process

training i.e. teaching technical skill required to perform jobs, such

as training assembles to solder wires or teachers to device lesson
plans. however training and development programs and their
objectives change in the 1980s and 1990s.

Employers had to adapt to rapid technological changes, improve

product and service quality, and boost productivity to stay

competitive improving quality often requires remedial-education
training, since quality-improvement programs assume employees
can use critical thinking skills, produce charts and graphs and
analyse data.

Employees must also use or acquire skills in team building,

decision making, and communication.

As firms become more technologically advance, employees

require training in technological and computer skills (such as desk

top publishing and computer aided design and manufacturing).
Contd

THE NEED FOR TRAINING (Contd)

As increased competition has put a premium on better

service, employers have turned increasingly to customerservice training to provide employees with the tools and
abilities they need to deal more effectively with customers,
such as effective listening skills.

More employers today are also taking advantage of the fact

that training can strengthen employee commitment.this is

one reason why high commitment firms like toyota provide
two weeks of training per year for all employers-about
double the national average

PLANNING AND STRATEGISING FOR

TRAINING

Planning and strategic training are two important aspects of human resource
development, whereby there are no set procedures which organisations should
strictly follow in creating a human resource development plan (HRM). However
the eight points listed bellow can act as a guidance.

A HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT PLAN:

1.
Discern the training and developing requirements from organisational strategy
and business objectives.
2.
Analyse the training requirements for effective work performance in
organisational functions and jobs.
3.
Analysing the existing qualities and training needs of current employees.
4.
Devise an HRD plan which fills the gap between organisational requirements and
the present skills and knowledge of the employees.
5.
Decide on the appropriate training and development methods to be used for
individuals and groups.
6.
Decide who is to have responsibility for the plan and its various parts.
7.
Implement the plan and evaluate its progress.
8.
Amend the HRD plan in the light of monitoring/evaluation and changes in
business strategy.

Organisational strategy

HRM strategy
Training and development
strategy
Analysis of needs

Training programs
Monitor and Evaluate

ASSESSMENT
ASSESSMENT

Analyse
Analysetraining
trainingneeds
needs
Identify
Identifytraining
training
objectives
objectivesand
andcriteria
criteria

DESIGN
DESIGN

Pre-test
Pre-testtrainees
trainees
Select
training
Select trainingmethods
methods
Plan
Plantraining
trainingcontent
content

EVALUATION
EVALUATION
Measure
Measuretraining
trainingoutcomes
outcomes
Compare
Compareoutcomes
outcomestoto
Objectives/criteria
Objectives/criteria

DELIVERY
DELIVERY

Schedule
Scheduletraining
training
Conduct
training
Conduct training
Monitor
Monitortraining
training

STRATEGIC TRAINING
Strategic training- It focuses on efforts that develop

competencies, value and competitive advantages for the

organizations which means training must be based on
organizations strategic plans and HR planning efforts.
Strategic training also implies that HR and training

professionals need to be involved in organizational change

and strategic planning in order to develop training plans and
activities that support managements strategic decisions.

Strategic
StrategicTraining
Training

Business
Business
Strategies
Strategies

Develops
Developsemployee
employee
capabilities
capabilities
Encourages
Encourageschange
change
Promotes
continuous
Promotes continuous
learning
learning
Creates/shares
Creates/sharesnew
new
knowledge
knowledge
Facilitates
Facilitates
communication
communication

Training
Training
Strategies
Strategies
&&
Activities
Activities

NEEDS ASSESSMENT
The first step in training is to determine what training is required,
thus assessing the training needs of the new employees is important.
This is the diagnostic phase of setting training objectives.

INDIVIDUAL
INDIVIDUAL

ORGANISATION
ORGANISATION

TRAINING
TRAININGAND
AND
DEVELOPMENT
DEVELOPMENT

TECHNIQUES FOR IDENTIFYING NEEDS

There are two types of techniques to identify NEEDS:
1.
TASK ANALYSIS
2. PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS
Task Analysis : An analysis of the jobs requirements to determine the
training required.
It is done by TASK ANALYSIS RECORD FORM (tabular structure)
this consolidates information regarding the jobs required tasks and
skills which are helpful in determining training requirements.

Performance Analysis :
Verifies performance deficiency and determine whether that
deficiency should be rectified through training or some other means.
The first step is to appraise employees performance, since to

improve it, first determine persons current performance compared

to what it should be.
To distinguish between cant do and wont do problems, their
specific causes and solutions.

SETTING TRAINING OBJECTIVES

After analysing training needs, concrete measurable training

objectives should be set.

Training objective is defined as A description of performance you

want learners to be able to exhibit before you consider them

competent .

Objectives specify what the trainee should be able to accomplish after

training.

TYPES OF TRAINING OBJECTIVES

Training objectives are of three types and can be set as :
Knowledge- Impart cognitive information and details to trainees.
Skill- Develop behaviour changes in how jobs and task

requirement are performed.

Attitude- Create interest in and awareness of the importance of

training.

The success of training should be measured in terms of

objectives set. Objectives serve as a check on
internationalization, or whether the person is able to use the
training.

TECHNIQUES OF TRAINING
1.

Vestibule or simulated training: training employees on

special off-the-job equipment, as in airplane pilot training,
whereby training costs and hazards can be reduced. In this it is not
necessary to rely on computer.

2.

Computer based training: in this trainee uses computer-based

system to interactively increase his/her knowledge/skills. It
reduces the learning time and is cost effective.

3.

Teletraining
A trainer in a central location can train a group of employees at
remote locations via television hookups.

4.

Videoconferencing
An increasingly popular way to train employees defined as a
means of joining two or more distant groups using a combination
of audio and visual equipment. It allows people in one location to
communicate live with people in another city or country or with
groups in several other cities.

5.

1.
2.
3.

Audio Visual Techniques

Like films, closed-circuit television, audiotapes, and videotapes are used in this process. Audiovisuals are more
expensive than conventional lectures. They are used in
following situation:
When there is a need to illustrate how a certain sequence
should be followed over time.
When there is a need to expose trainees to events not
easily demonstrable in live lectures.
When the training is going to be used organization wide.

6.

E-learning : Training on-line

The use of the internet or an organizational intranet to conduct
training on-line.

Web-enable
course content

Modularize
content

Link module
content to
training
objective

Identify elearning
measurement
means

Customize for
learner centric
use

7.

i.
ii.
iii.

Programmed learning
Is a systematic method for teaching job skills which involves
following functions:
Presenting questions, facts or problems to the learner.
Allowing the person to respond
Providing feedback on the accuracy of answers.

Its main advantages are, first it reduces the time, second learner
learns at its own pace.

TRAINING DESIGN
Training must be designed to address the assessed
need. Effective training design comprises of :
Learning The Focus Of Training
2. Transfer of training
1.

Contd.

TRAINING DESIGN
1.

(Contd..)

LEARNING The Focus Of Training

Learning is a complex psychological process that is not fully understood

by practitioners.
It comprises of a) Determining Learner Readiness: they must have basic skills
necessary for learning i.e. ability to learn, motivation to learn and
self-efficacy.
b) Understanding Different Learning Styles:

Auditory learners (one who learn best by listening),

Tactile learners (one who must get their hands on and use
training resources),

Visual learners (one who learn most by pictures and images

c)

Designing Training For Transfer.

Contd

TRAINING DESIGN

(Contd..)

Training design must consider that all the trainees are adults, but
have varying learning style, experience and anxieties.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Adult learning :
Adults have need to know why they are learning something.
Adults have self need to be self directed.
Adults bring more work-related experiences into the learning process.
Adults enter into learning experience with a problem centered
approach.
Adults are motivated to learn by both extrinsic and intrinsic factors.
For effective training adults should be actively engaged in learning and
problem solving process

TYPES OF PRACTICES IN LEARNING

Active practice- occurs when trainees perform job-related task and duties

during training. It is more effective than simply reading or passively listening

Spaced practice- occurs when several practice sessions are spaced over a

period of hour or day.

Massed practice- occurs when a person performs all of the practice at

once.

Contd.

TYPES OF PRACTICES IN LEARNING

(Contd)

Behaviour Modeling It is the most elementary way to learn. It

is learning by copying someone elses behaviours.It is used

extensively as the primary means for training supervisors and
managers in interpersonal skills.

Reinforcement and immediate confirmation- Reinforcement

means people tend to repeat responses that give them some type of
positive reward and avoid actions associated with negative
consequences. Immediate confirmation means people learn best if
reinforcement and feedback is given after training.

TRAINING DESIGN (Contd..)

2.

Transfer of training- In transfer of training, trainers should design

training intervention for the highest possible transfer of training. This
transfer occurs when trainees actually use on the job what they learnt
in training.
Effective transfer needs following:

a)
b)

Trainees can use things learned in training and apply it to the job.
Employees maintain their use of the learned material overtime.

IMPLEMENTATION OF TRAINING
TRAINING TECHNIQUES :
1)

ON-THE-JOB TRAINING (OJT): In this training a person

Various types of OJT :

learns a job while working.

a) Coaching (understudy method), here employee is trained by an

experienced worker.
b) Job Rotation, here employee moves from job to job at planned
intervals.
c) Apprenticeship Training, a process by which individuals become
skilled workers through a combination of class room instruction
and OJT.

IMPLEMENTATION OF TRAINING
Advantages of On-The-Job Training :
a) relatively inexpensive
b) trainees learn while producing
c) no need for expensive off-job facilities
d) get quick feedback about the correctness of performance

IMPLEMENTATION OF TRAINING

STEP-BY-STEP PROCEDURE of OJT :

STEP 1 PREPARATION OF THE LEARNER

Put the learner at ease- relieve the tension.

Explain why he/she is being taught.
Create interest, encourage questions, find out about the knowledge of
the learner.
Explain the why of the job, relate it to some job the worker already
knows.
Place the learner as close to normal working position as possible.
Familiarize the worker with equipment, materials, tools, trade terms.

Contd

IMPLEMENTATION OF TRAINING (Contd..)

STEP 2 PRESENTATION OF THE OPERATION:
Explain quantity and quality requirements.
Go through the job at the normal work pace.
Explain each step between operations, difficult parts or

those in which errors are likely to be made.

Explain the key points several times.
Make the learner explain the steps.

Contd

IMPLEMENTATION OF TRAINING
(Contd)

STEP 3 PERFORMANCE TRYOUT

Correct the mistakes and if necessary, repeat few complicated steps.
Make the trainer run the job at normal pace.
Have the learner do the job gradually building up skill and speed.
As soon as learner demonstrate ability to do the job, let the work begin.

Contd...

IMPLEMENTATION OF TRAINING (contd..)

STEP 4 FOLLOW-UP
Designate to whom the learner should go for help.
Gradually decrease supervision.
Correct faulty work patterns that begin to creep in.
Compliment good work, encourage the worker to meet

quality/quantity standard.

IMPLEMENTATION OF TRAINING
(contd..)

2) JOB INSTRUCTION TRAINING (JIT): It is listing of

each jobs basic tasks, along with key point in order to
provide step-by-step training for employees.
The steps for JIT include: what is to be done,
how it is to be done and why it is to be done.

Contd

IMPLEMENTATION OF TRAINING (Contd..)

3) LECTURES : They are a quick and simple way of providing
knowledge to large group of trainees.
Some useful guidelines for presenting your lecture :

Give your listeners signals to help them follow your ideas.

Dont start out on the wrong foot.
Keep your conclusions short.
Be alert to your audience.
Maintain eye contact.
Make sure everyone in the room can hear.
Control your hands.
Talk from notes rather than from a script.
Eliminate bad habits.
Practice.

METHODS TO INCREASE THE TRANSFER OF

TRAINING
TRANSFER OF TRAINING- Is a process whereby trainees actually
use on-the-job what they learnt in training.
a)

Offering trainees an overview of the training prior to the

actual training. This helps in short term and long term
transfer.

b)

Ensure that the training mirrors the job context as much as

possible.

EVALUATION AND MONITORING OF

TRAINING
The penultimate stage in the training strategy is the evaluation and
monitoring of training. It is the most important and often the most
neglected or least adequately carried out part of the training process.
It is both-Simplistic and Complicated.
Simplistic because monitoring is a process whereby information is gleaned

from trainee and then the course and the program are amended in the light
of these comments.
Complicated because there are other stakeholders in the process besides

the trainees, i.e. designers of the courses, the trainers and the sponsors.

 Questionnaires (Feedback forms) or happiness sheets are

common way of eliciting trainee response programs.

Tests or examinations are common on formal courses which

provide a certificate, e.g. diploma in word processing skills

although end-of-course tests can be provided after short courses
to check the progress of trainees.
Projects initially seen as learning methods but they can also be

provide valuable information to instructors.

Structured exercises and case studies are opportunities to

apply learned skills and techniques under the observation of

tutors and evaluators.

Tutor reports. It is important to have the opinions of those who

deliver the training. This gives a valuable assessment from a

different perspective.

contd

METHODS OF EVALUATION (contd)

Interviews of trainees post course or instruction period.

These can be informal or formal, individual or group or by

telephone.

Observation of courses and training by those devising

training strategies in the training department is very useful

and information from these observations can be compared
with trainee responses.

Participation and discussion during training needs

people who are adept at intercepting responses as this can

be highly subjective.

HIGH

VALUE TO ORGANISATION

Results
Results
Behaviour
Behaviour

Learning
Learning
Reaction
Reaction
LOW
EASY

DIFFICULT

BASIS OF EVALUATION

It is best to consider how training is to be evaluated before it begins. As shown

in the figure in last slide, evaluating training becomes successively more
difficult as evaluation moves from reaction to learning to behaviour, and
then to results measures.

REACTIONS: Oganisations evaluate the reaction levels of trainees by

conducting interviews or by administrating questionnaires to the trainees.

LEARNING: Learning levels can be evaluated by measuring how well trainees

have learned facts, ideas, concepts, theories and attitudes. Tests on the training
material are commonly used for evaluating learning. Of course, learning
enough to pass a test does not guarantee trainee will remember the training
content months latter or will change job behavior.

BEHAVIOUR: Evaluating training at the behavioural level means:

(1)

Measuring the effect of training on job performance through interview of

trainee and their co-workers.
Observing job performance.
However, behaviours are more difficult to measure than reaction and learning.
Even if behaviurs do change, the resultsthat management desires may not be

(2)

RESULTS: Employees evaluate results by measuring the effect of

training on the achievement of organisational objectives. Because

results such as productivity, turnover, quality, time, sales, and cost
are relatively concrete, this type of evaluation can be done by
comparing records before and after training.
The difficulty with measuring results is pin-pointing
whether changes were actually the results of training or other factors
of major impact.

INTEGRATING TRAINING WITH PMS

PMS: Performance Management System

It is the process used to identify, encourage, measure, evaluate, improve

and reward employee performance.

It is defined as a performance appraisal system that does not force

managers to give false or misleading measurement and instead facilitates

open, job-related discussion between the supervisor and the employee.
It is the integration of performance appraisal system with broader human

resource systems as a means of aligning employees work behaviours with

organisations goals.
contd

INTEGRATING TRAINING WITH PMS

(contd)

Functions of PMS:
1.

Links organisational strategy to the results

2.

Provides information to the employees about their performance.

3.

Clarifies what the organisation expects.

4.

Identifies development needs.

5.

Documents performance for personnel records.

PERFORMANCE
Performance is essentially what an employee does or does not do.
It includes following elements:
Quality of output
Quantity of output.
Timeliness of output.
Presence at work.
Cooperativeness.

PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT
There are three basic categories of performance information and its
measurement:
1.

2.

3.

Trait-based assessment systems assesses or identifies the abilities or a

subjective character trait of employee such as-attitude, initiative or
creativity. e
Behaviour-based systems measures the extent to which an employee
engages in specific, relatively well defined behaviours while at the job,
which leads to success.
Results-based systems measures the bottom line associated with an
employees work and his/her accomplishments.

EFFECTIVE PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT

Performance Management is used to develop employees as resources. It can
lead to higher employees motivation and satisfaction. But in an era of
continuous improvement, and ineffective PMS poses a huge liability. To be
effective a PMS should be:
Consistent with strategic mission of the organisation.
Beneficial as a development tool.
Useful as an administrative tool.
Legal and job-related.
Viewed as generally fair by employees.
Effective in documenting employees performance .

ENHANCING PMS
PMS can be improved by training supervisors in doing performance appraisals.
Training should center around minimising rater errors and providing a common
frame of reference on how raters observe and recall information. Skills of
employees also affects performance rating because employees use upward
influence.
Training evaluators and giving them feedbacks are ways to improve raters ability
to make accurate assessment. Training programs are classified into:
Rater-error Training: It means to reduce rating errors, such as leniency,
severity, central errors and halo-errors.
Frame-of-Reference Training: It is a common frame of reference in
evaluating performance of employees into good or poor depending upon actual
behaviour of employee in the organisation.
Information-Processing Approach: It is an approach where raters are
trained to be accurate in observing and rememberig the behaviour and
performance of employees. It comprises of Observation Training and Decisionmaking Training.

1.1. Set
Setclear,
clear,measurable
measurable
performance
performancegoals
goalsand
and
make
developmental
make developmental
plans.
plans.

5.5. Annual
Annualappraisal
appraisal
against
goals.
against goals.
Adjust
Adjustgoals
goalsand
andplan
plan
for
the
next
year.
for the next year.

Administrative
Administrativedecisions:
decisions:
Promotion
Promotion
Transfer
Transfer
Discipline
Discipline
Pay
Payraise
raise

4.
4. Monitor
Monitorgoal
goalprogress,
progress,
undertake
development
undertake development

2.
2.Monitor
Monitorgoal
goalprogress,
progress,
undertake
development
undertake development

3.
3. Coaching
Coachingby
by
supervisor
throughout
supervisor throughout
the
theyear
year

Organisational
OrganisationalStrategy
Strategy
Performance
PerformanceManagement
ManagementPractices
Practices
Identify
Identify
Encourage
Encourage
Measure
Measure
Provide
Providefeedback
feedback
Provide
assistance
Provide assistance
Reward
Reward
Employee
EmployeePerformance
Performance
Performance
PerformanceManagement
ManagementOutcomes
Outcomes
Development
Development
Productivity
Productivity
Advancement
Advancement
Discipline
Discipline
Pay
Payraises
raises
Termination
Termination
Organisational
OrganisationalResults
Results

Compensation

Indirect

Direct

Base Pay

Salary

Protection
Programs
Medical
Insurance
Life insurance
Pension
Society
security

Pay For Time

Not Worked
Vacations
Holidays
Sick leave
Jury duty

Merit Pay

Wages

Service and
Perquisites
Recreational
Facilities
Car
Financial planning
Low cost or free
Meal

Incentive Pay
Bonus
Commission
Piece rate
Profit sharing
Stock option
Shift differential

Deferred Pay
Saving plans
Stock
purchase
Annuity

INTEGRATING TRAINING WITH

COMPENSATION
Compensation : employee compensation refers to all forms of pay or
rewards going to employees and arising from their employment. It is
an important factor affecting how and why people chose to work at
one organization over others. It helps in attracting and retaining
employees in a competitive manner.

TYPES
OF
COMPENSATION
Rewards can be both Intrinsic and Extrinsic.
Intrinsic Rewards include praise for completing a project. It

includes psychological and social effects of compensation.

Extrinsic Rewards include tangible (monetary and non-

monetary) forms. It is of two types.

1. Direct Compensation : monetary rewards for work done. Ex.Base Pay (Wages, Salaries), Variable Pay (bonuses, incentives,
stock options)
2. Indirect Compensation : based on membership in an
organization and consist of benefits. Ex.- Medical/Life Insurance,
Paid Time Off, Retirement Pension.

TRAINING AND COMPENSATION

Compensation is basically based on entitlement (indirect),

performance (direct) and companys policies.

Performance can be enhanced by proper training whereby increasing

the compensation.
Companys policies are set by HR managers who can be trained so as

to utilize human resource in best proper way.

Current trends in compensation are Skill-Based, where skill can be

enhanced by proper training.

REFERENCES
Handbook of Human Resource Management Practices, 9th Edition

- Michael Armstrong
Human Resources And Personnel Management, 3rd Edition

- K. Ashwathappa
Human Resource Management, 7th Edition

- Gary Dessler
Human Resource Management, 10th Edition

- Robert L. Mathis, John H. Jackson

Human Resource Management, 5th Edition

- Fisher, Schoenfeldt, Shaw