BIOLOGY

5.2 Aerobic
Respiration

Aerobic Respiration
Occurs in living cell
with presence of

OXYGEN
4 main stages
Glycolysis
The Link Reaction
Kerbs Cycle
Electron Transport Chain

Glycolysis

Breakdown of 1 glucose (6C) molecule into 2

molecules of pyruvate (3C)

Occurs in the CYTOSOL

of the cytoplasm of the cell
and produces 2 ATP
molecules
Take place in

Aerobic or Anaerobic
conditions

Main Stages of Glycolysis

Glucose molecule phosphorylated, receives
high energy phosphate from hydrolysis of ATP to
increase its energy level to become glucose-6-

phosphate.
Rearrange and become fructose-6-

phosphate
Further activated by addition of another phosphate
group from hydrolysis of ATP

 Fructose-1,6-biphosphate produced is split into

glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
- DIHYDROXYACETONE PHOSPHATE
(ISOMER)
Rearranges into another molecule
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
OXIDISED

1.
2.

H atoms are removed, NAD+ is reduced NADH

An Inorganic Phosphate (Pi) is attached to the substrate
FORMS

GLYCERATE-1,3BISPHOSPHATE

 One phosphate from each GLYCERATE-1,3BISPHOSPHATE is transferred to ADP and form ATP
Glycerate-3-phosphate is rearranged to form
GLYCERATE-2-PHOSPHATE
Removal of water produces
PHOSPHOENOLPYRUVATE
Second phosphate is transferred to ADP to form ATP.
PHOSPHOENOLPYRUVATE is converted into
PYRUVATE
REFER TO DIAGRAM
Figure 5.5 (Textbook Page 209)

KERBS CYCLE

REFER TO DIAGRAM
Figure 5.6 (Textbook Page 211)

 Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix

Acetyl CoA (2C) Combines with oxaloacetate (4C)
in a condensation reaction to form citrate (6C)
Coenzyme (CoA) is released.
It then rearranges by the removal of water
molecule and addition of water to a different
carbon atom to form isomer isocitrate
It then oxidised to form oxalosuccinate (6C)
,NAD+ is reduced to NADH
Oxalosuccinate that bound to isocitrate
dehydrogenase is unstable.
Undergoes decarboxylation, loses CO2 and
converted into -ketoglutarate (5C)
Oxidative-decarboxylation of -ketoglutarate
takes place and produces succinyl coenzyme A

 Substrate level phosphorylation takes place,

Succinyl CoA Succinate
Energy released is used for phosphorylation of
GDP (guanosine diphosphate) GTP (guanosine
triphosphate)
GTP transfer its phosphate group to ADP forming
ATP
Succinate oxidised to fumarate (4C), 2 hydrogen
atoms are transferred to FAD (flavin adenine
nucleotide)
Fumarate becomes hydrated by addition of water
then convertedinto malate (4C)
Malate oxidised to regenerate oxaloacetate (4C),
and NAD+ is reduced to NADH
Oxaloacetate can be used to combine with acetyl

Electron
Transport
Chain

Multiprotein Complexes
1.Complex I (NAD Dehydrogenase)
2.Complex II (Succinic
Dehydrogenase)
3.Complex III (Cytochrome bc1
Complex)
4.Complex IV (Cytochrome c
oxidase)

Mobile Electrons Carriers

1.Coenzyme Q (Ubiquinone)
2.Cytochrome C

 NADH and FADH2 transfer the hydrogen atoms to

specific carriers on the inner membrane of
mitochondria and oxidized back to NAD+ and FAD
respectively
Hydrogen atoms are passed and split into (H+)
and electrons along the pathway
In Complex I, the 2 electrons removed from NADH
passed to flavoprotein coenzyme Q
Complex II transfers electrons from succinate
coenzyme Q
Coenzyme Q complex III
Complex III accepts electrons and passed to
cytochrome C and the passes electrons to complex
IV

 Electrons are passed from one carrier to

another. Gaining an electron is reduced and the
losing electron is oxidised and able to accept
more electrons
Finial electron acceptor is oxygen. Complex IV
transfer electrons to oxygen which combines
with hydrogen ions to form WATER
As electrons move along the electron transport
chain at progressively lower energy levels, the
energy released is used to synthesis ATP.
3ATP molecules are produced for every NADH
that enters the electron transport chain and
2ATP molecules for every FADH2 that enters the
electron transport chain

Chemiosmosis

 Electron released by the oxidation of substrate

in the mitochondrial matrix flow DOWN the electron
transport chain
Energy released by the electron transport chain is
used to pump hydrogen ion (H+) from the
matrix into intermembrane space
This builds up transmembrane electrochemical
proton (H+) gradient ( referred as proton-motive
forces)
Inner membrane is impermeable to hydrogen ions

 ELECTRON CHEMICAL PROTON

GRADIENT forces the hydrogen ions
diffuse through the ATP synthesis complex,
DOWN the electrochemical gradient across
membrane.
The potential energy is used to synthesis
ATP from ADP and Pi.
This process called chemiosmosis
REFER TO DIAGRAM
Figure 5.10 (Textbook Page 214)

ATP Production

 In glycolysis, 1 molecule of glucose is broken down into 2

molecules of pyruvate
Activation of glucose uses 2 ATP to produce 4 ATP
NET GAIN = 2 ATP
In glycolysis,

Glyceraldehyde-3-phospate

Glycerate-1,3-bishphosphate
Produces 2 NADH

LINK REACTION(oxidation decarboxylation of pyruvate)

produces 2 NADH

In the KREBS CYCLE,

Citrate -ketoglutarate produces 2 NADH
-ketoglutarate succinyl CoA produces 2 NADH
succinyl CoA succinate produces 2 ATP
succinate fumarate produces 2 FADH
malate oxaloacetate produces 2 NADH

TOTAL= 10 NADH and 2 FADH

 When electrons flow through the electron transport chain,

a transmembrane electrochemical proton gradient is
generated and
ATP is produced by chemiosmosis
1 NADH can generate 3 ATP
1 FADH can generate 2 ATP
10 NADH
10 x 3
2 FADH
2x2
Substrate level phosphorylation

(2 GTP 2 ATP)

= 30 ATP
= 4 ATP

= 2 ATP

Total ATP production from one glucose molecule in aerobic

respiration = (30+4+2) ATP = 38 ATP

 The actual amount of ATP produced less than

38 ATP and may vary in different tissues.
In the cells of the liver, heart and kidneys, the
yield of the complete oxidation of one glucose
molecule is 38 ATP.
In the cells of skeletal muscle and brain, the
production is only 36 ATP

Respiratory
Inhibitors

Cyanide ( CN- )
-Competitive inhibitor

-Binds strongly to ferric Fe3+ component of the cytochrome a 3 present

in the cytochrome oxidase system of mitochondrion
Cytochrome a3 : at the end of the electron transport chain

-Cyanide inhibits the terminal transfer of the electrons to oxygen

(preventing oxygen being utilised)
-This blocks the flow of electrons along the electron transport chain
Hydrogen ions cannot be pumped across the innermembrane into intermembrane
space of mitochondrion

-Synthesis of ATP form ADP & Pi by oxidative phosphorylation is

prevented
Chemiosmosis process is prevented

-Without ATP

Carbon Monoxide
-High affinity
-Binds with haemoglobin & prevents oxygen binding
Causes HYPOXIA (lack of oxygen)

-When oxygen supply decreases, electrons accumulate &

flow of electrons is blocked
-H+ cannot be pumped
Synthesis of ATP is inhibited
NAD+ and FAD are not generated

-Large exposure can change the central nervous system

and heart and cause death

Lipids and Protein

Alternative
Energy Source
as

Respiratory Substrate
Carbohydrates
Fats
Proteins

 Fats are hydrolysed by lipases GLYCEROL & FATTY

ACIDS
Glycerol is first phosphorylated & dehydrogenated &
enters glycolysis as glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
Fatty acids is transported into the mitochondrial matrix
Beta-oxidation occurs

Fatty acids (long chain hydrocarbon)

Shortened by 2 carbon atoms to form actyl group
Actyl Group: attached to coenzyme A to form CoA that enters into
Krebs cycle

Fatty acid:
Generate ATP molecules
Energy store

Proteins
Hydrolysed into amino acids
Have their amino groups NH 2
Removed by oxidative deamination /
transamination
Deamination occurs in liver cells
Ammonia, urea and uric acid are excreted through
ornithine cycle
Deamination amino acid is call -keto acid

 Transamination: transfer of amino group of an amino

acid an -keto acid
These two process produced -keto acid
Can be converted to pyruvate / acetate & be carried
to the Krebs Cycle
Some enter directly as intermediates in the Krebs
Cycle
Number of ATP produced depends on their point of
entry into the pathway
REFER TO DIAGRAM
Figure 5.12 (Textbook Page 218)