DC Drives

Learning Objectives
At the end of this Chapter, you should be able to :
Analyze the operation and characteristics of
various types of DC motors
Analyze the operation and characteristics of DC
motor in four quadrants

Review of D.C. motors: operation, characteristics and

modes of control

Degree of Control applied: quadrants of control,

implications on power electronic requirements

Converters: principles, single and three phase bridge

configurations, controllability and protection,
implications on a.c. supply (power factor and
harmonics)

Pulse Width Modulated Chopper amplifiers:

principles, single-four quadrant bridge configurations,
losses, controllability and protection, supply
implications (capacitor, choke, regeneration)
3

Types of Electric Motors

Classification of Motors
Electric Motors
Alternating Current
(AC) Motors

Synchronous

Induction

Single-Phase

Three-Phase

Direct Current (DC)

Motors

Separately
Excited

Series

Self Excited

Compound

Shunt

Motors are categorized on the basis of input

supply, construction and operation principles
4

DC Motors
DC Motors Components
Field pole
North pole and south pole
Receive electricity to form
magnetic field

Armature

(Direct Industry, 1995)

Cylinder between the poles

Electromagnet when current goes through
Linked to drive shaft to drive the load

Commutator
Overturns current direction in armature

DC Motors
Speed control without impact of
power supply quality
Changing armature voltage
Changing field current

Restricted use
Few low/medium speed applications
Clean, non-hazardous areas

Expensive compared to AC motors

6

ia

DC motors

Ra

Separately-excited DC motor:
Va

Field current supplied from a

separate source

if

La
n

vf
ea
Ka

Self-excited DC motor: shunt motor

Field winding parallel
with armature winding
Line Current = field
current + armature
current

Speed constant
independent of load
up to certain torque

Speed control:
insert resistance
in armature or
field circuit
7

DC motors
Self-excited DC motor: series motor
Suitable for
high starting
torque: cranes,
hoists

Speed restricted to
5000 RPM
Avoid running with
no load: speed
uncontrolled

Field winding in series

with armature winding
Field current =
armature current

Electric drives are used for a

wide range of different loads.
Some common load
characteristics are shown along
with their associated equations.
It is desirable that the load
torque and the motor torque
characteristics are orthogonal or
nearly so. This will improve
speed regulation.

Torque, TL

TL = k0 + k1N
Eg., Hoist

Speed, N

Dynamic torque equation for a motor

d
TJ
B TL
dt
J Moment of Inertia, kg m 2 , B Friction coefficient
speed, rad s -1
TL Load torque, N . m, T Developed torque, N . m
Dynamic voltage equation for a DC motor

di a
va ia R a La
ea
dt
10

DC motors
Relationship between speed, field
flux and armature voltage

Ea = ZNP/(60A)

Back electromotive force:

where Ka = Volts/rpm

Define Ka = ZP/(60A)

Ea = KaN Volts

If speed is expressed as = 2 N/60 rad.sec-1

Back electromotive force:

Ea = Ka1

where Ka1 = Volts/ rad.sec-1 = Kv = ZP/(2 A)

Ea = Kv Volts, where emf constant Kv = Volts/ rad.sec-1
Ea = electromotive force developed at armature terminals (volts)
= field flux which is directly proportional to field current
N = speed in RPM (revolutions per minute)
= speed in radians/sec

11

DC motors
Power developed, Pa = Ea Ia Watts
Torque developed = Pa/
Torque:

T = EaIa/

Nm

Nm

Basic equations for average EMF and

average Torque developed by motor
Average EMF, Ea = Ka1 = K
T = Ka1 Ia

Nm

Volts

Define Ka1 = ZP/(2 A)

Average Torque, T = KT Ia

Nm,

Ia = armature current
= speed, rad. sec-1

Kv = Volts/rad. sec-1, EMF constant

KT = Nm/A, torque constant

12

Average induced voltage:

E a K a N or K a1 K v
Separately-excited motor: Average Torque developed
i
TAV K a1 I a K T I a
Average speed, if flux is constant
R
i
Va I a R a E a I a R a K v
L
V
Va I a R a
n

rad sec 1
v
Kv
e
Expressing in terms of torque,
K
as I a TAV / K T
Dynamic Voltage and torque equations
Va I a R a
Va
Ia R a
di a

va ia R a La
ea
Kv
Kv
Kv
dt
Va
Ra
ea K a n

TAV rad sec 1

Kv
K vKT
a

T K a ia

13

Self-excited Shunt Motor:

Average induced voltage:

E a K a N or K a1 K v
Average Torque developed
Average speed, if flux is constant

Avearge armature voltage

E a K v

Va I a R a E a I a R a K v

Average Torque developed

TAV K a1 I a K T I a

V Ia R a
a
Kv

rad sec

Expressing in terms of torque,

as I a TAV / K T
V Ia R a
V
I R
a
a a a
Kv
Kv
Kv

Va
Ra

TAV rad sec 1

K v K vKT

TAV K T I a
Average speed, if flux is constant

Va I a R a
Kv

Va
Ra

TAV rad sec 1

K v K vKT

rad sec 1

14

Dynamic equations
ea K a n

Series Excited Motor:

Kf i

ea K a K f ia n
Torque developed

if = ia

T K a i a K a K f i a2
Average induced voltage

E a K a K f Ia N

Ra+Rf

Average Torque developed

La
Va

Lf

TAV K a K f I a2
Dynamic Voltage equations
v a i a (R a R f ) (L a L f )

ea

di a
ea
dt

Va I a (R a R f ) E a
Ka

Average Speed, N
V I a (R a R f )
N a
K a K f Ia
15

Va I a R a K V
T KT Ia
where

K V Back e . m . f constant, Volts/rad sec 1

K T Torque constant, Nm/A
Va Applied Voltage, V
I a Armature current, A

Speed, rad sec -1

If I f is constant, K V ( Volts/rad sec 1 ) K T ( Nm/A)
16

Va I a R a K V

T I a K T

where

If
If 0

If
If 0

K V = Back e . m . f constant, Volts/rad sec 1

K T = Torque constant, Nm/A
Va = Applied Voltage, V
Ia = Armature current, A

= = Speed, rad sec -1

If = Field current, A (required)
Ifo = Full Field current, A

17

Va I a R a

Ia
K V
Ia0

Ia
Ia0

T I a K T

where K V Back e . m . f constant, Volts/rad sec 1

K T Torque constant, Nm/A
Va Applied Voltage, V
I a Armature current, A I f Field current, A (required)
I ao Full Armature current, A I fo Full Field current, A

Speed, rad sec -1

18

where K V Back e . m . f constant, Volts/rad sec 1

Va I a R a

If
If 0

K V

If
T I a K T
If 0

K T Torque constant, Nm/A

Va Applied Voltage, V
I a Armature current, A

Speed, rad sec -1

I f Field current, A (required)
I fo Full Field current, A

19

Problem:1
A fixed field DC motor drives a compressor and
has the following characteristics:
Back emf constant
0.172 V/rpm
Torque constant
1.64 N.m/A
Armature resistance
0.25
Under the most severe conditions, the compressor
needs to be driven at 825 rpm with a torque of 50
Nm. Determine the maximum current and voltage
required for the motor.

Solution:

Average induced voltage,

E a K a N Volts
Average Torque developed
TAV K a1 I a K T I a
Motor voltage equation :
Va I a R a E a I a R a K a N
E a K a N 0.172 x 825 142 V
Motor torque, TAV K T I a
Td
50
Motor maximum current, I a

30.48 A
K T 1.64
Va I a R a E a 30.48 x 0.25 142 149.62 V
Motor maximum voltage Vdo 149.62 V

Problem:2
A DC traction motor has the following
characteristics:
Back emf constant

2 V/rad.s-1 (Fully
fluxed)
Torque constant
3 Nm/A (Fully fluxed)
Armature & field resistances 0.3
Armature inductance
2 mH
The motor is to provide a maximum torque of 600
N.m at a speed of 1500 rpm.
Determine the armature voltage, Vd.

Solution:

Motor speed =

2N
2 1500

157.07 rads 1
60
60

Average induced voltage,

Ea K v
Average Torque developed
TAV K T I a
Motor voltage equation :
Va I a R a E a
E a K v 2 x 157 314 V
Motor torque, TAV K T I a
600
Motor maximum current, I a
200 A
3
Va I a R a E a 200 x 0.3 314 374 V
Motor maximum voltage Vdo 374 V

 The -T plane with motor's shaft cross sectional area is shown.

Mech Electrical

Forward
Braking

Electrical Mech

+ve
+ve

-ve
+ve

Electrical Mech

Reverse
Motoring

Mech Electrical

-ve
-ve

P = IV

Motor

Reverse
Braking

+ve
-ve

When accelerating
Electrical

Forward
Motoring

Mechanical

When braking
Electrical
Mechanical

P =

P = IV

Generator

P =

24

 The positive or
forward speed is
arbitrarily chosen
The positive
torque is in the
direction that will
produce
acceleration in
forward speed,
speed
as shown above.

Forward

Q II

QI

Q III

Q IV

Reverse

25

Ea positive
Ia positive
Both torque and speed are positive - the
motor rotates in forward direction,
direction which is in
the same direction as the motor torque.
torque
The power of the motor is the product of the
speed and torque (P = T), therefore the
power of the motor is positive.
Energy is converted from electrical form to
mechanical form,
form which is used to rotate the
motor.
motor
The mode of operation is known as forward
26
motoring.

Ea positive
Ia negative
The speed is in forward direction but the motor
torque is in opposite direction or negative value.
The torque produced by the motor is used to 'brake'
'brake
the forward rotation of the motor.
The mechanical energy during the braking, is
converted to electrical energy - thus the flow of
energy is from the mechanical system to the
electrical system.
The product of the torque and speed is negative thus
the power is negative, implying that the motor
operates in braking mode.
mode
The mode of operation is known as forward
braking.
27

Ea negative
Ia negative

The speed and the torque of the motor are in

the same direction but are both negative.
negative
The reverse electrical torque is used to rotate
the motor in reverse direction.
direction
The power, i.e. the product of the torque and
speed, is positive implying that the motor
operates in motoring mode.
mode
The energy is converted from electrical form
to mechanical form.
form
This mode of operation is known as reverse
motoring.
motoring
28

Ea negative
Ia positive
The speed is in reverse direction but the torque is
positive.
The motor torque is used to 'brake' the reverse
rotation of the motor.
motor
The mechanical energy gained during the braking is
converted to electrical form - thus power flow from
the mechanical system to the electrical system.
The product of the speed and torque is negative
implying that the motor operates in braking mode.
mode
This mode of operation is known as reverse
braking.

29

Torque/speed characteristics of variable speed drive

The operation of a drive often extends outside one quadrant
and are often expressed as a four-quadrant torque/speed
graph. The use of quadrant charts to represent common
state changes are as shown.
Speed, N

Speed, N
e.g., Locomotive

II

II

IV

e.g., Crane

II

Torque, T

Torque, T

III

Speed, N

e.g., Electric car

III

IV

Torque, T

III

IV

Typically motor control systems will operate in either I, II

or IV of thesee quadrants.
Note: Quadrant II and IV have the potential for
regeneration.

30

Problem:3

A goods elevator is to be used to lift heavy loads between

floors in a manufacturing complex as shown in FIGURE 1.
It is to be powered by a DC motor with constant excitation.
The details below define the characteristics for the motor:
Motor:

Torque constant
0.8 Nm/A
Back emf constant 0.8 V/rad s-1
Armature resistance 0.03

(a) The elevator is to carry loads with maximum weight of 800

kg. The weight of the lift is 300 kg. The building has 5 floors
and the average height of each floor is 8 m. The minimum
time for the elevator to move from ground floor to top floor is
33 s. Use the acceleration due to gravity at sea level, g= 9.81
ms-2. Calculate (i) the minimum power requirement for the
motor and (ii) the torque when the motor is running at a
speed of 900 rpm.
(b) Determine the motor armature current and the armature
voltage.

DC motor

Top Floor

up

Floor 1
down

8 metres
Gnd Floor

FIGURE 1

DC motor

Top Floor

Solution:

up

weight of load
weight of the lift
height of each floor
No. of floors
Time taken

=
=
=
=
=

W kg.
L kg.
Hm
F
S sec

Floor 1
down

H metres
Gnd Floor

(a)

Total mass, m
= W + L = 1100 kg
Total height of floors
= H x F = 40 m
Velocity of the lift, v
= (H x F)/S
= 1.2 m/s
Force to lift the load, F = m a = m x 9.81 = 10791 kg.m/s2
Power required, P
= T = F v
= 13057 Watts

= 94.25 rad/s
Torque developed, T
= P/
= 138.54 N.m
33

(b)

Torque constant = 0.8

Nm/A
Back emf constant = 0.8
V/rad s-1
Armature resistance = 0.03

Va I a R a K V

Torque, T K T I a
138.54
Ia
173.17 A
0.8
Va 173.17 x 0.03 0.8 x 94.25 80.6 V

Problem:4
A gantry crane is to be powered by a DC motor
with constant excitation. The DC motor is to
raise and lower a load with maximum weight of
1500 kg. As shown in FIGURE 2, the motor
with the parameters listed below, is being used
with a 50:1 reduction gearbox and a drum of
diameter 0.3 m. The details below define the
characteristics for the motor and dc-dc
converter.
Motor: Torque constant = 0.6 Nm/A
Back emf constant =0.6 V/rad s-1
Armature resistance = 0.2

FIGURE 2

(a)The load is being raised at a speed, v = 0.25 ms1

. Assume zero losses in the gearing from the motor
to the drum. Use the acceleration due to gravity at
sea level, g = 9.81 ms-2. Calculate (i) the torque
required for the motor and (ii) the armature voltage.
(b) Under a particular steady-state condition the
load is being lowered at a speed of 0.12 ms-1 (or in
this case use = 0.8 rads-1). Determine (i) the
torque required Lfor the motor and (ii) the armature
voltage.
.

Solution:
(a)
F mg 1500 x 9.81 14715 kg m s -1

TL Fr 14715 x 0.15 2207.25 Nm

TL L Fv 14715 x 0.25 3678.75 W

Tm m = TL L = 3678.75 W

TL
n
= ,
Tm
1

m
n
= ,

or

or

TL = nTm = 50 Tm

m = n L = 50 L

m =

Tm = T

3678.5
As L =
= 1.667 rad s -1
2207.05

1
m = 50 L = 50 x 1.667 = 83.85 rad s = =

TL
2207.25
=
= 44.145 Nm = T
50
50
Motor torque, Tm = 44.145 Nm
Tm =

38

Motor speed, = = 83.85 rad s -1

We have Motor torque, Tm = K TIa
44.145
Motor armature current, Ia =
= 73.575 A
0 .6
Motor back emf, Eb = K v = 0.6 x 83.85 = 50.31V
Va = Ia R a + Eb
Armature voltage, Va = 73.575 x 0.2 + 50.31 = 65.025V

(b)

F = mg = 1500 x 9.81 = 14715 kg m s -1

TL = Fr = 14715 x 0.15 = 2207.25 Nm

TL L = Fv = 14715 x 0.12 = 1765.8 W

1765.8
TL =
= 2207.25 N.m
0.8

39

1
m = n L = 50 L = 50 x 0.8 = 40 rad s

TL
2207.25
Tm =
=
= 44.145 Nm = T
50
50
Motor torque, T = 44.145 Nm

Motor speed, m = = = 40 rad s -1

We have Motor torque, T = K TIa

44.145
Motor armature current, Ia =
= 73.575 A
0. 6
Motor back emf, Eb = K v = 0.6 x 40 = 24 V

Va I a R a E b
Armature voltage, Va 73.575 x 0.2 24 38.715
40

Problem 5:
The mass of an electric bus as shown in FIGURE 3 is 5000 kg,
including the passengers. A single dc motor mounted on the
front wheels drives the bus. The wheel diameter is 1 m. The
bus is going up a hill at a speed of 50 km/hr. The slope of the
hill is 30o. The friction coefficient of the road surface at a given
weather condition is 0.4. Ignore the motor losses and compute
the power consumed by the motor.

FIGURE 3

Solution:
Data:
Mass of the bus, m = 5000 kg
Wheel diameter, d
=1m
Speed of the bus, v = 50 km/hr
Slope of the hill,
= 30o
Friction coefficient, r = 0.4
Acceleration due to gravity, g= 9.8 ms-2
The weight of bus is divided into two components:
(i) Perpendicular to the road surface (force F), responsible for
the friction force, Fr
(ii) Parallel to the surface, responsible for pulling the bus
toward the bottom of the hill, Fl
The motor force, Fm = Fl + Fr
All these forces are dependent on the gravitational force, Fg

Considering the force diagram, the normal

force, F and the pulling force, Fl are
F = Fg cos
Fl = Fg sin
The gravitational force, Fg = m.g
= 5000 x 9.8 = 49,000 N
F = Fg cos = 49000 x cos 30 = 42435.25 N
Fl = Fg sin = 49000 x sin 30 = 24500 N
The friction force, Fr = r x F = 0.4 x
42435.25 = 16974 N

The total force seen by the dc motor,

Fm = Fl + Fr
= 24500 + 16974 = 41474 N
The torque to be developed by the motor,
Tm = Fm x radius of wheel
= 41474 x 0.5 = 20737 Nm
Power consumed by the motor,
Pm = x Tm
= (v/r) x Tm
= (50/0.5) x 20737 = 2073700 W
= 2073.7 kW

Speed control of motors is carried out in either open

or closed loop.

Open-loop control:

In an open loop, the input power is adjusted for an

appropriate speed but no check is made to ensure that
the required speed is achieved.

45

Closed-loop control:
Power
In

Required
speed
POWER
CONTROLLER

Actual
speed
MOTOR

LOAD

Tacho

In closed loop speed control system, the output speed

is compared with the required speed to determine the
error.
The input power is then adjusted to reduce the error.
The closed loop approach has many advantages, but
the extra expense and complexity is not justified if
speed regulation is unimportant.
46