Joining Processes

Lesson Outcomes
By the end of this lessons, students should be able to
explain:
1. The concept and types of fusion welding
processes
2. The principle and equipment used for OxyfuelGas, Gas Metal-Arc Welding, Gas Tungsten-Arc
Welding, Shielded Metal-Arc Welding
processes.
3. Causes affecting weld quality

Joining The BIG Picture

Fusion Welding
Definition: melting together and coalescing of
materials using chemical or electrical
means.
Types of fusion welding processes:
Consumable electrode arc welding
Non-consumable electrode arc welding
High-energy-beam welding
4

Characteristics of Fusion Welding

Processes
TABLE27.1
Joiningprocess
Shieldedmetalarc

Operation
Manual

Submergedarc

Automatic

Gasmetalarc

Semiautomatic
orautomatic
Manualor
automatic
Semiautomatic
orautomatic
Manual

Gastungstenarc
Fluxcoredarc
Oxyfuel

Electronbeam,
Semiautomatic
Laserbeam
orautomatic
*1,highest;5,lowest.

Advantage
Portableand
flexible
High
deposition
Mostmetals
Mostmetals
High
deposition
Portableand
flexible
Mostmetals

Skilllevel
required
High

Welding
position
All

Current
type
ac,dc

Distortion
1to2

Costof
equipment
Low

Lowto
medium
Lowto
high
Lowto
high
Lowto
high
High

Flatand
horizontal
All

ac,dc

1to2

Medium

dc

2to3

All

ac,dc

2to3

Mediumto
high
Medium

All

dc

1to3

Medium

All

2to4

Low

Medium
tohigh

All

3to5

High

Oxyfuel-Gas Welding
Uses fuel gas (normally acetylene) combined with oxygen to produce
flame. Flame provides heat (up to 3300oC) to melt metals at the joint.

Can be used for most ferrous and non ferrous

metals up to a thickness of 6 mm.
2 types of combustion occur:
Primary combustion:
C2H2 + O2 2CO + H2 + heat
Secondary combustion:
2CO + H2 + 1.2O2 2CO2 +H2O + heat
6

Oxyacetylene Flames Used

in Welding

Three basic types of oxyacetylene flames used in oxyfuel-gas welding and cutting operations: (a)
neutral flame; (b) oxidizing flame; (c) carburizing, or reducing, flame. The gas mixture in (a) is
7
basically equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene.

Filler metals in oxyfuel-gas welding

Filler metals (filler rods) are used to supply additional metal to

the weld zone
Filler rods are normally coated with flux to:
suppress oxidation on the welded parts by producing a gaseous shield
around the weld zone
Dissolve and remove oxides
Help develop slag that protects the molten metal against oxidation
8

Torch Used in
Oxyacetylene Welding
(a) General view of and (b) crosssection of a torch used in
oxyacetylene welding. The acetylene
valve is opened first; the gas is lit
with a spark lighter or a pilot light;
then the oxygen valve is opened and
the flame adjusted. (c) Basic
equipment used in oxyfuel-gas
welding. To ensure correct
connections, all threads on acetylene
fittings are left-handed, whereas those
for oxygen are right-handed. Oxygen
regulators are usually painted green,
acetylene regulators red.

Arc Welding Processes

Heat is generated from the electric arc produced between the tip of
an electrode and the workpiece. Temp generated is about 30,000oC
There are 2 types of arc welding processes:
1. Non-consumable electrode

2.

Examples: Gas tungsten arc welding, Plasma arc welding,

Atomic hydrogen welding
Shielding gas is supplied to prevent oxidation at weld zone
Normally use direct current. Polarity depends on type of
electrode, type of workpiece.

Consumable electrode

Examples: Shielded metal-arc welding, Submerged-arc welding,

Gas metal-arc welding,
10

Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding

(GTAW/TIG)

Features:

Shielding gas is normally argon/helium

Good for thin metals
Can be used on a wide variety of metals
including aluminum, magnesium, titanium,
refractory metals.
Portable equipment
Good quality surface finish
Uses AC current at 500 A or DC current at
200 A; 8-10 kW

11

Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding

(GTAW/TIG)
The gas tungsten-arc welding process, formerly
known as TIG (for tungsten inert gas) welding.

Equipment for gas tungsten-arc welding

operations. Source: American Welding
Society.
12

Shielded Metal-Arc
Welding (SMAW)
Features:
Very common industrial (construction, shipbuilding, pipeline, etc.)
welding process
Arc is generated by touching the tip of electrode and withdrawing it
quickly to maintain the arc
Heat generated by the arc melts the electrode tip, its coating and the
workpiece metal
The weld consists of the workpiece metal, electrode metal and coating
material.
The coating material deoxidizes the weld area and provides a shielding
gas to inhibit oxidation
Slag must be cleaned as it can cause corrosion
Uses AC or DC current, 50-300 A; up to 10kW
Suitable for workpiece thickness of 3-19 mm
Simple process.
13

Shielded Metal-Arc
Welding (SMAW)
Schematic illustration of the shielded metal-arc
welding process. About 50% of all large-scale
industrial welding operations use this process.

Schematic illustration of the shielded metal-arc

welding operations (also known as stick welding,
because the electrode is in the shape of a stick).

14

Gas Metal-Arc Welding

(GMAW/MIG)
Features:
The consumable electrode is fed automatically through a nozzle
into the weld arc using a wire-feed drive motor.
Electrode contains deoxidizers to prevent oxidation of moltenweld puddle.
Argon/helium/carbon dioxide shielding gas is used to protect
weld area against oxidation.
Relatively low temperature generated. Therefore suitable for
thin sheets of less than 6mm.
Suitable for ferrous/non-ferrous metals. Commonly used on
metal fabrication industry.
Simple operation, low skill required, versatile process,
economical, easily automated, 2 x productivity of SMAW.
15

Gas Metal-Arc Welding

(GMAW/MIG)

Schematic illustration of the

gas metal-arc welding process,
formerly known as MIG (for
metal inert gas) welding.

16

Equipment Used in Gas

Metal-Arc Welding
(GMAW/MIG)
Basic equipment used in gas
metal-arc welding operations.
Source: American Welding
Society.

17

Electrodes for Arc Welding

Electrodes for consumable arc-welding processes
are classified according to:
Strength of the deposited weld metal
Current (AC or DC)
Type of coating

Electrodes are classified by numbers and letters or

by colour code.
Specifications for electrodes and filler metals are
published by the American Welding Society (AWS)
and the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI).
18

Designations for Mild Steel

Coated Electrodes
TABLE27.2
TheprefixEdesignatesarcweldingelectrode.
Thefirsttwodigitsoffourdigitnumbersandthefirstthreedigitsoffivedigitnumbers
indicateminimumtensilestrength:
E60XX60,000
psiminimumtensilestrength
E70XX70,000
psiminimumtensilestrength
E110XX110,000
psiminimumtensilestrength
Thenexttolastdigitindicatesposition:
EXX1X
Allpositions
EXX2X
Flatpositionandhorizontalfillets
Thelasttwodigitstogetherindicatethetypeofcoveringandthecurrenttobeused.
Thesuffix(Example:EXXXXA1)indicatestheapproximatealloyinthewelddeposit:
A1
0.5%Mo
B1
0.5%Cr,0.5%Mo
B2
1.25%Cr,0.5%Mo
B3
2.25%Cr,1%Mo
B4
2%Cr,0.5%Mo
B5
0.5%Cr,1%Mo
C1
2.5%Ni
C2
3.25%Ni
C3
1%Ni,0.35%Mo,0.15%Cr
D1andD2
0.250.45%Mo,1.75%Mn
G
0.5%min.Ni,0.3%min.Cr,0.2%min.Mo,0.1%min.V,
1%min.Mn(onlyoneelementrequired)
19

Electrode coatings
Electrode coatings consist of silicate binders,
oxides/carbonates/fluorides/metal alloys/cellulose.
Electrode serves to:

Stabilize the arc

Generate gasses to protect weld area against oxidation
Control rate of melting of electrode
Act as a flux to prevent formation of oxides, nitrides at
the molten-weld pool
Add alloying elements to the weld zone to improve the
integrity of the weld
20

The Weld Joint, Quality and Testing

1.
2.
3.

Three distinct zones can be identified in a typical weld

joint:
Base metal
Heat-affected zone
Weld metal

Characteristics of a typical
fusion-weld zone in oxyfuelgas and arc welding.
21

The Weld Joint, Quality and Testing

Solidifications of the weld metal

After the application of heat and the introduction of the filler metal
(if any) into the weld zone, the weld joint is allowed to cool to
ambient temperature.

The solidification process is similar to that in casting and begins

with the formation of columnar (dendritic) grains.

Grain structure and grain size depend on the specific metal alloy, the
particular welding process employed, and the type of filler metal.

The resulting structure depends on the particular alloy, its

composition, and the thermal cycling to which the joint is subjected.

22

Showing the Grain structure in a (a) deep weld and (b) shallow weld.
Note that the grains in the solidified weld metal are perpendicular to
their interface with the base metal. (c) Weld bead on a coldrolled
nickel strip produced by a laser beam. (d) Microhardness (HV) 23
profile across a weld bead.

The Weld Joint, Quality and Testing

Heat-affected zone
The heat-affected zone (HAZ) is within the base metal
itself.
It has a microstructure different from that of the base
metal prior to welding, because it has been subjected
temporarily to elevated temperatures during welding.
The properties and microstructure of the HAZ depend
on (a) the rate of heat input and cooling and (b) the
temperature to which this zone was raised.

24

Weld Quality
Weld quality is affected by the presence of discontinuities. Types of
discontinuities:
1.
Porosity

2.

Due to: gasses released, chemical reactions during welding, contaminants

Prevention by: select electrodes/filler metals carefully, preheat weld area, clean
contaminants, reduce welding speed

Slag inclusions

3.

Due to: trapped oxides/fluxes/coatings, contaminants from environment

Prevention by: Clean weld-bead before next layer is deposited, Provide
sufficient shielding gas, Proper design of joint

Incomplete fusion and penetration

Prevention by (imcomplete fusion): heat/raise temperature of workpiece, clean

weld area before welding, improve joint deisgn, provide sufficient shielding gas
25
Prevention by (incomplete penetration): increase heat input, reduce travel speed,
improve joint design

Weld Quality
4. Weld profile

5. Cracks

Due to: temperature gradient causing thermal stress, etc.

Prevention by: improve joint design, change welding
parameters, preheat components, avoid rapid cooling
26

Weld Quality
Welded discontinuities
An occasional improper
condition can render a
manufactured welded structure
imperfect.
A lack of local
physical material continuity at or
near the weld is called a
discontinuity or flaw.
Such a feature has to be detected
and evaluated to determine if it is
a harmless imperfection or an
intolerable defect that must be
removed because of the service
the structure will sustain in
operation.

27

Weldability of Metals
Ferrous metals:
Plain carbon steel: excellent (low C-steel), medium
(medium C-steel), poor (high C-steel)
Low-alloy steel: medium
High alloy steel: good under well-controlled conditions
Stainless: varying (differ by process)
Cast iron: varying (differ by process)
Non ferrous metals:
Aluminum alloys: good at high rate of heat input; require
shielding gas, absence of moisture

28

Testing of welds
Destructive testing
Tension test
Tension-shear test
Bend test
Facture toughness test
Nondestructive testing
Visual inspection
Radiography
Magnetic particle
Liquid penetrant
Ultrasonic
29

Joint design

30

Summary
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

6.
7.

Fusion welding is melting together and coalescing of

materials using chemical or electrical means.
Fusion welding may be achieved via chemical or
electrical means
Oxyfuel-gas welding involves generating heat by
combustion of a fuel gas with oxygen
Arc welding involves generating heat from an electrical
arc
Different types of welding processes provide different
weld qualities, incur different costs, and require various
levels of skills.
Different metals have varying weldabilities with low
carbon steels providing the best weldability
Destructive and non-destructive tests can be used to
31
inspect the integrity of welds.