Genetic

Variation, The
Substrate For
Natural
Selection

Genetic variation occurs within and

between populations
Individual variation occurs in populations of all species of
sexually reproducing organisms.
However, not all the variation we observe in a population is
heritable. Phenotype is the cumulative product of an inherited
genotype and a multitude of environmental influences.
Remember: only the genetic part of variation can have
evolutionary consequences as a result of natural selection,
because it is the only part that goes beyond generations.

Genetic variation occurs within and

between populations continued
Variation Within Populations
Both quantitative and discrete characters contribute to
variation within a population.
Quantitative characters vary along a continuum [plant height],
while discrete characters can be classified on an either-or basis
[either red or white flowers].

Polymorphism
When 2 or more forms of a discrete character are presented
in a population, the contrasting forms are called morphs
[again, like red or white flowers].
A population is polymorphic for a character if 2 or more
distinct morphs are each represented in high enough
numbers to be noticeable.
Polymorphism: the existence of polymorphic characters.
An example in humans is the ABO blood groups [4 morphs].
Polymorphism applies only to discrete characters.

Polymorphism

Genetic variation occurs within and

between populations continued
Variation Within Populations Continued
Measuring Genetic Variation
Population biologists use several quantitative definitions of
genetic variation. 2 of the most common are the percentage
of gene loci represented by two or more alleles in a
population, and the average percentage of loci that are
heterozygous in the individuals of a population.
Although much of this variation is invisible, it is displayed by
molecular differences.
Gel electrophoresis can be used to study these differences.

Genetic variation occurs within and

between populations continued
Variation Between Populations
Most species exhibit geographical variation, differences in
genetic structure between populations.
Because at least some environmental factors are likely to be
different from 1 place to another, natural selection can
contribute to geographical variation.
Genetic drift can also cause chance variations among different
populations.
A cline: a graded change in some trait along a geographical
axis.
A cline may represent:
A graded area of overlap where individuals of neighboring
populations are interbreeding.
A gradation in some environmental factor.

Clinal variation in a plant

Mutation and sexual recombination

generate genetic variation
Mutation
New alleles originate only by mutation, or change in the
nucleotide sequence of DNA.
Most mutations occur in somatic cells and are lost when an
individual dies. Only mutations that occur in cell lines that
produce gametes can be passed along to offspring.
Chance determines where a mutation will strike and how it will
alter a gene.
Most mutations are harmless, but single point mutations can
have significant impacts on phenotypes.
A mutation that alters a protein enough to affect its function is
more often harmful that beneficial.
On rare occasions, however, a mutant allele may actually fit its
bearer to the environment better and enhance the reproductive
success of the individual.
However, this isnt very likely in stable environments.

Mutation and sexual recombination

generate genetic variation continued
Mutation Continued
Because chromosomal mutations usually affect many gene
loci, they are almost certain to disrupt the development of the
organism. But even rearrangements of chromosomes may in
rare instances bring benefits.
Duplications of chromosome segments, like other
chromosomal mutations, are nearly always harmful. However, if
this duplicated segment doesnt hurt the genetic balance, it
can continue over generations and provide an enlarged
genome with excess loci that may eventually take on new
functions as a result of mutation. New genes also might arise.
For bacteria and other microorganisms that have very short
generation spans, mutation can have a noticeable effect on a
populations variation in a short time.
If a single individual in the population happens to harbor a
mutation that renders it resistant to a poison, in just a few

Mutation and sexual recombination

generate genetic variation continued
Sexual Recombination
Members of a sexually reproducing population owe nearly all
their genetic differences to the unique recombinations of
existing alleles each individual receives from the gene pool.
Sex shuffles alleles and deals them at random to determine
individual genotypes.
A population, of course, contains a huge number of possible
mating combinations, each bringing together the gametes of
individuals that are likely to have different genetic
backgrounds.
Sexual reproduction recombines old alleles into fresh
assortments every generation.

Diploidy and balanced polymorphism

preserve variation
Diploidy
The diploid nature of most eukaryotes hides a considerable
amount of genetic variation from selection in the form of
recessive alleles in heterozygotes.
The recessive allele is exposed to selection only when both
parents carry it and combine 2 copies in 1 zygote.
Heterozygote protection maintains a huge pool of alleles that
may not be suitable for present conditions but that could bring
new benefits when the environment changes.

Diploidy and balanced polymorphism

preserve variation continued
Balanced Polymorphism
Selection itself may preserve variation at some gene loci.
This ability of natural selection to maintain diversity in a
population is called balanced polymorphism.
One of the mechanisms for this preservation of variation is
heterozygous advantage. If individuals who are heterozygous at
a particular locus have greater survivorship and reproductive
success than any type of homozygote, then 2 or more alleles
will be maintained at that locus by natural selection.
Crossbreeding between 2 different inbreed varieties often
produces hybrids that are much more healthy than either
parent stock.
This hybrid vigor is probably due to 2 factors:
The segregation of harmful recessives that were
homozygous in the inbreed varieties.
The heterozygote advantage at many loci in the hybrids.

Diploidy and balanced polymorphism

preserve variation continued
Balanced Polymorphism Continued
A patchy environment, where natural selection favors different
phenotypes in different subregions within a populations
geographical boundaries, can also result in balanced
polymorphism.
[Protective coloration suited to different backgrounds may help
explain the morphs of those snakes we saw earlier.]

A balanced polymorphism in a finch

population

Diploidy and balanced polymorphism

preserve variation continued
Balanced Polymorphism Continued
Still another [yes, theres more!] cause of balanced
polymorphism is frequency-dependent selection, in which the
reproductive success of any 1 morph declines if that
phenotypic form becomes too common in the population.

Frequency-dependent
selection

Diploidy and balanced polymorphism

preserve variation continued
Neutral Variation
Some of the genetic variations observed in populations are
probably unimportant in their impact of reproductive success.
Neutral variation: variation that confers no selective
advantage for some individuals over others.
The relative frequencies of neutral variations will not be
affected by natural selection; some neutral alleles will increase
in the gene pool, and others will decrease by the chance effects
of genetic drift.
Variations appearing to be neutral may, in fact, influence
survival and reproductive success in ways that are difficult to
measure.
Variation may be neutral in 1 environment and not in
another.
But, even if only a fraction of the extensive variation in a gene
pool significantly affects the organisms, that is still an

The end:]