ne

System

The human body

contains two different
kinds ofglands:
Exocrine glands- secrete their products into
ducts.
The endocrine glands secrete their
products (hormones) into the
extracellular
space
around the secretory cells

The Endocrine

Glands

are the pituitary (hypophysis), thyroid,

parathyroids, adrenals (suprarenals),
pancreas, testes, ovaries, pineal
(epiphysis cerebri), and thymus.
Their products, called hormones, are
used to maintain homoestasis by changing
the physiological activities of cells.
Target cells- cells that respond to the
effects of a hormone. These cells contain
receptors for the hormone and thus bind
to it, leading to a response.

Hormonal
Action

Earl W. Sutherland, Jr. who

received the Nobel Prize in 1971
proposed a hypothesis explaining
the
mechanism that controls hormonal
activity.
Certain organs and tissues respond
to a hormone, but others do not.
Different organs may respond
differently to the same hormone. For
example a pituitary hormone, FSH
stimulates the maturation of eggs.

Hormonal
Action

The cells DNA determine the sequence of events

triggered by a hormone.
The hormones produced by the endocrine glands
are either the steroids, which are lipid soluble, and
the protein hormones.
The steroids can enter a cell through its membrane
while protein hormones cannot. The steroid
hormones include the following: testosterone,
progesterone, estrogens, aldosterone and
corticoids. Protein hormones are insulin, glucagoo,
thyroxene and the pituitary hormones.

Hormonal
Action

Steroid hormones work differently. These fatsoluble hormones pass through the membrane
and once inside the cell, they combine with
receptors.
The hormone receptor complex moves into the
nucleus and attaches at a particular location on a
chromosome. The attachment activates one or
more genes that can cause the synthesis of new
proteins that are related to the cells specific
function.

Hormonal Action
According to Sutherland, when the
protein hormone binds to its receptor in
the cell membrane, an enzyme called
adenylate cyclase is activated in the
cell.

Adenylate cyclase catalyzes the

conversion of ATP to cyclic AMP
(adenosine monophosphate. Cyclic
AMP is called a second messenger
which causes the response inside the
cell that the hormone (first
messenger) began. The presence of
cyclic AMP sets in motion the
response programmed in the cells
DNA.

docrin
Glands

Pituitary
Gland

Also called the hypophysis, the

pituitary gland is located directly
under the hypothalamus portion of
the brain. The pituitary is about the
size of a bean and is connected by a
stalk of nerve cells and blood vessels
to the hypothalamus. This shows a
direct link between the nervous
system and the endocrine system.

Pituitary
Gland

Pituitary
Gland

The daily secretions of the pituitary are only

less than one millionth of a gram yet they
control most of the other endocrine glands.
That is the reason why the pituitary is often
referred to as the master gland.
It is the anterior lobe of the pituitary which
functions as the master control system; it is
in turn, controlled by the hypothalamus
(brain).

Pituitary
Gland

The anterior lobe secretes the following hormones.

1. The thyroid stimulating hormones (TSH) stimulates the
thyroid to secrete thyroxine;
2. The adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulates
cortex of the adrenal glands;
3. The gonadotropic hormone or the follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH);
4. The luteinizing hormone (LH) which controls the
secretion of ovaries and testes;
5. The somatotropic hormone (STA) or growth hormone;
and
6. The prolactin a hormone that stimulate milk production
in the mammary glands.

Pituitary
Gland

The posterior pituitary secretes the

following hormones:

1. Oxytocin which stimulates uterine

contractions during pregnancy, and milk
released after childbirth; and
2. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin
which aids water reabsorption in the kidneys
and stimulates the smooth muscles of the
arteries.

Pituitary
Gland

Location of Pituitary Gland

Pituitary
Gland

A normal sized hand

(left) and the
enlarged hand of
someone with
acromegaly (right)

Diagram of pituitary
and pineal glands in
the human brain

Disorders of the

Pituitary Gland

Oversecretion of the growth hormone during the period of

skeletal development causes giantism. The body grows
beyond the normal size and may reach more than 2
meters (8 feet) in height, and 180 kilograms (400 pounds) in
weight. Death usually occurs before the person reaches 30
years of age.
Acromegaly is a form of giantism that occurs in adults after
skeletal development is complete. The skeleton does not
lengthen any further, but some cartilage and bones thicken.
This widens the face, hands and feet.
An insufficient secretion of the growth hormone produces the
dwarf or midget. The height of the pituitary dwarf is about
the size of a six-year-old child. A dwarf has a normal
intelligence and normal body proportions. He usually dies
before he reaches fifty. Some dwarfism is caused by the

Thyroid
Gland

The thyroid gland is situated near the junction

of the larynx and the trachea. The two lobes of
the thyroid are connected by a bridge of tissue
called an isthmus. The thyroid secretes
thyroxine, an amino acid containing iodine.
Thyroxine controls the metabolism, the rate
at which food and oxygen are used to
generate heat and energy. The synthesis of
thyroxine and its release are controlled by a
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) of the
pituitary gland.

Disorders of the

Thyroid Glands
The overactivity of the thyroid gland results in
hyperthyroidism (Graves disease). An
oversecretion of TSH of the pituitary or a
thyroid tumor causes this condition. The
symptoms includes nervousness, irritability,
increased heart rate and blood pressure,
weakness, weight loss, elevated use of oxygen
at rest and bulging eyes. Drug therapy and
radioactive iodine have replaced surgery as a
treatment for hyperthyroidism.

Disorders of the

Thyroid Glands
The underactivity of the thyroid is called
hypothyroidism. This condition causes a
swelling in the neck due to an enlarged
thryroid. Hypothyroidism, usually called goiter,
is caused by insufficient iodine in the diet.
Most cases of persons with goiter live in the
areas far from the ocean where iodine content
in the soil and water supply is low. Goiter
practically disappeared when small amounts
of iodine where added to the table salt and
drinking water in these affected areas.

Disorders of the

Thyroid Glands
The symptoms of hypothyroidism include
decreased heart rate, blood pressure, and
body temperature; lowered basal metabolism
rate; and underactivity of the nervous system.
Hypothyroidism during infancy causes
cretinism, which results in a mental
retardation and irregular development of
bones and muscles. If the condition occurs
during adulthood, myxedema results. Swollen
facial features and possible mental retardation
are the effects of myxedema.

par
glan

WHAT ARE THE PARATHYROID GLANDS?

Theparathyroidglandsarefourtinyglands,located

intheneck,thatcontrolthebody'scalciumlevels.
Size-agrainofrice(weighsapproximately30
milligramsandis3-4millimetersindiameter).
Theparathyroidsproduceahormonecalled
parathyroidhormone(PTH).

WHAT IS PARATHYROID HORMONE?

PTHraisesthebloodcalciumlevelby:
breakingdownthebone(wheremostofthebody's

calciumisstored)andcausingcalciumrelease
increasingthebody'sabilitytoabsorbcalcium
fromfood
Whenthebloodcalciumlevelistoolow,PTHis
releasedtobringthecalciumlevelbackuptonormal.
Whenthecalciumlevelisnormalorgetsalittletoo
high,normalparathyroidswillstopreleasingPTH.

WHY DO WE NEED CALCIUM?

Weneedcalciumtobuildandmaintainstrong

bonesandhealthycommunicationbetweenthe
brainandvariouspartsofthebody.
itregulatesmusclecontractionincludingthe
heartbeat.
italsoplaysakeyroleinnormalbloodcoagulation
(clotting)

Adrenal Glands

Inmammals, theadrenal
glands(also known
assuprarenal glands) are
endocrine glandsthat are located
on the top of the kidneys. They
are chiefly responsible for
releasinghormonesin response
tostressthrough thesynthesisof
corticosteroidssuch as cortisol
andcatecholaminessuch as
adrenaline(epinephrine) and
noradrenaline. They also produce
androgensin their innermost
cortical layer.

Adrenal
Glands

The adrenal glands affect kidney

function through the secretion of
aldosterone, and recent data
(1998) suggest that
adrenocortical cells under
pathologicalas well as under
physiologicalconditions show
neuroendocrineproperties; within
normal adrenal glands, this
neuroendocrine differentiation
seems to be restricted to cells of
thezona glomerulosaand might
be important for anautocrine
regulation of adrenocortical
function

Adrenal
Glands

The two-adrenal glands are

located on top of the
kidneys. The outer portion
of each adrenal is the cortex
and the inner part is the
medulla. The adrenal cortex
provides more than fifty
identified cortical hormones.
The most widely known are
the mineralocorticoid group,
the glucocorticoids and the
cortical sex hormones
(mostly male androgens).

Adrenal
Glands

The adrenal medulla

secretes epinephrine or
adrenalin when stimulated
by the nervous system. This
hormone permits the body
to react quickly and strongly
during emergencies (the
flight or fight effect). The
secretion of adrenalin is
important for the bodys
survival in times of stress.

Adrenal
Glands

Underactivity of the cortex

produces Addisons disease. The
symptoms of this condition
include anemia, weakness,
fatigue, increased blood
potassium, and decrease blood
sodium. Overactivity of the cortex
produces Cushings disease and
the adrenogenital syndrome. The
symptoms of Cushings disease
include fattening of the face,
chest and the abdomen with
striations on the abdomen. The
adrenogenital syndrome makes a
female acquire male
characteristics while, in males, it
causes an accelerated sexual
development.

Disorders of the

Adrenal
Glands

PANCREAS

The pancreas is located near the

stomach and duodenum of the
small intestine. As secretory
organ, the pancreas has the
following functions:
1. To produce and release digestive
enzymes into the small intestines,
2. To secrete several hormones into
the bloodstream.

PANCREAS

 The true endocrine portion of the pancreas is found in a

cluster of cells called the islets of Langerhans. The alpha
cells of the islets of Langerhans secrete glucagon and
the beta cells secrete insulin. When the blood sugar
rises insulin is secreted. Insulin facilitates glucose
transport across the cellular membranes and helps
convert glucose to glycogen in the liver. The liver acts as
regulator of blood sugar by taking up excess glucose
when insulin and blood sugar are high. Sugar is released
into the blood by the liver when insulin and blood sugar
are low. It is the hormone, glucagon that stimulates the
liver to convert stored glycogen to glucose, thereby
increasing the blood sugar concentration.

PANCREAS

When the beta cells of the islets of

Langerhans do not produce enough
insulin, the person develops diabetes
mellitus, an inherited disease. Medicinal
insulin is used to treat this disease. Low
blood sugar or hypoglycemia is caused by
excessive insulin. This condition can be
controlled by a regulated diet, low in
carbohydrates. Carbohydrates tend to
stimulate large secretions of insulin,
thereby removing the sugar from the
Disorders of the
bloodstream.

PANCREAS

Gonads
Gonadsarethemaleandfemaleprimaryreproductiveorgans.Themale
gonadsarethetestesandthefemalegonadsaretheovaries.These
reproductivesystemorgansarenecessaryforsexualreproductionasthey
areresponsiblefortheproductionofmaleandfemalegametes.Gonads
alsoproducesexhormonesneededforthegrowthanddevelopmentof
primaryandsecondaryreproductiveorgansandstructures.

Gonads
Asacomponentoftheendocrinesystem,bothmaleandfemalegonadsproducesex
hormones.Maleandfemalesexhormonesaresteroidhormonesandassuch,canpassthrough
thecellmembraneoftheirtargetcellstoinfluencegeneexpressionwithincells.Gonadal
hormoneproductionisregulatedbyhormonessecretedbytheanteriorpituitaryinthebrain.
Hormonesthatstimulatethegonadstoproducesexhormonesareknownasgonadotropins.
Thepituitarysecretesthegonadotropinsluteinizinghormone(LH)andfollicle-stimulating
hormone(FSH).Theseproteinhormonesinfluencereproductiveorgansinvariousways.LH
stimulatesthetestestosecretethesexhormonetestosteroneandtheovariestosecrete
progesteroneandestrogens.FSHaidsinthematurationofovarianfollicles(sacscontaining
ova)infemalesandspermproductioninmales.

Gonads

Female Gonad Hormones

Theprimaryhormonesoftheovariesareestrogensandprogesterone.
Estrogens-Groupoffemalesexhormonesimportantforreproductionandthedevelopmentoffemalesex
characteristics.Estrogensareresponsibleforgrowthandmaturationoftheuterusandvagina;breast
development;wideningofthepelvis;greaterfatdistributioninthehips,thighs,andbreast;uteruschanges
duringthemenstrualcycle;andincreasedgrowthofbodyhair.
Progesterone-Hormonethatfunctionstopreparetheuterusforconception;regulatesuteruschangesduring
themenstrualcycle;increasessexualdesire;aidsinovulation;andstimulatesglanddevelopmentformilk
productionduringpregnancy.
Androstenedione-Androgenhormonethatservesasaprecursortotestosteroneandestrogens.
Activin-Hormonethatstimulatestheproductionandreleaseoffollicle-stimulatinghormone(FSH).Italso
assistsinmenstrualcycleregulation.
Inhibin-HormonethatinhibitstheproductionandreleaseofFSH.

Gonads
Male Gonad Hormones
Androgensarehormonesthatprimarilyinfluencethedevelopmentofthemalereproductive
system.Althoughfoundinmuchhigherlevelsinmen,androgensarealsoproducedinwomen.
Testosterone-Sexhormoneimportantforthedevelopmentofmalesexorgansandsex
characteristics.Testosteroneisresponsibleforincreasedmuscleandbonemass;increased
growthofbodyhair;developmentofbroadshoulders;deepeningofthevoice;andgrowthofthe
penis.Testosteroneisthemainandrogensecretedbythetestes.
Androstenedione-Hormonethatservesasaprecursortotestosteroneandestrogens.
Inhibin-HormonethatinhibitsthereleaseofFSHandisthoughttobeinvolvedinspermcell
developmentandregulation.

Gonads
Gonads: Hormonal Regulation
Sexhormonesmayberegulatedbyotherhormones,byglandsandorgans,and
byanegativefeedbackmechanism.Hormonesthatregulatethereleaseofother
hormonesarecalledtropichormones.Gonadotropinsaretropichormonesthat
regulatethereleaseofsexhormonesbygonads.Themajorityoftropichormones
andthegonadotropinsFSHandLHaresecretedbytheanteriorpituitary.
Gonadotropinsecretionisitselfregulatedbythetropichormonegonadotropinreleasinghormone(GnRH),whichisproducedbythehypothalamus.GnRH
releasedfromthehypothalamusstimulatesthepituitarytoreleasethe
gonadotropinsFSHandLH.FSHandLHinturnstimulatethegonadstoproduce
andsecretesexhormones.

Gonads
Theregulationofsexhormoneproductionandsecretionisalsoan
exampleofanegativefeedbackloop.Innegativefeedbackregulation,the
initialstimulusisreducedbytheresponseitprovokes.Theresponse
eliminatestheinitialstimulusandthepathwayishalted.Thereleaseof
GnRHstimulatesthepituitarytoreleaseLHandFSH.LHandFSH
stimulatethegonadstoreleasetestosteroneorestrogenand
progesterone.Asthesesexhormonescirculateintheblood,theirrising
concentrationsaredetectedbythehypothalamusandpituitary.Thesex
hormoneshelptoinhibitthereleaseofGnRH,LH,andFSH,whichresults
indecreasedsexhormoneproductionandsecretion.

Gonads

Gonads: Gamete Production

Theproductionofspermcellsisknownasspermatogenesis.Thisprocessoccurs
continuouslyandtakesplacewithinthemaletestes.Themalegermcellorspermatocyte
undergoesatwopartcelldivisionprocesscalledmeiosis.Meiosisproducessexcellswithone
halfthenumberofchromosomesastheparentcell.Haploidmaleandfemalesexcellsunite
duringfertilizationtobecomeonediploidcellcalledazygote.Hundredsofmillionsofsperm
mustbereleasedinorderforfertilizationtotakeplace.
Oogenesis(ovumdevelopment)occursinthefemaleovaries.AftermeiosisIiscomplete,the
oocyte(eggcell)iscalledasecondaryoocyte.Thehaploidsecondaryoocytewillonlycomplete
thesecondmeioticstageifitencountersaspermcellandfertilizationbegins.Oncefertilization
isinitiated,thesecondaryoocytecompletesmeiosisIIandisthencalledanovum.When
fertilizationiscomplete,theunitedspermandovumbecomeazygote.Azygoteisacellthatis
attheearlieststageofembryonicdevelopment.

Malfunctions of
Gonads
Hypogonadism
Onefunctionofthetestesistosecretethehormonetestosterone.Thishormoneplaysan
importantroleinthedevelopmentandmaintenanceofmanymalephysicalcharacteristics.
Theseincludemusclemassandstrength,fatdistribution,bonemass,spermproduction,and
sexdrive.
Hypogonadisminmenisadisorderthatoccurswhenthetesticles(gonads)donotproduce
enoughtestosterone.Primaryhypogonadismoccurswhenthereisaproblemorabnormalityin
thetesticlesthemselves.Secondaryhypogonadismoccurswhenthereisaproblemwiththe
pituitaryglandinthebrain,whichsendschemicalmessagestothetesticlestoproduce
testosterone.

Malfunctions of
Gonads
Hypogonadismcanoccurduringfetaldevelopment,atpuberty,orinadultmen.Whenit
occursinadultmen,hypogonadismmaycausethefollowingproblems:

Erectiledysfunction(theinabilitytoachieveormaintainanerection)

Infertility

Decreasedsexdrive

Decreaseinbeardandgrowthofbodyhair

Decreaseinsizeorfirmnessofthetesticles

Decreaseinmusclemassandincreaseinbodyfat

Enlargedmalebreasttissue

Mentalandemotionalsymptomssimilartothoseofmenopauseinwomen(hotflashes,mood
swings,irritability,depression,fatigue)

Malfunctions of
Gonads

Therearevariouscausesofhypogonadism,including:

Klinefelter's syndromeThissyndromeinvolvesthepresenceofabnormalsex
chromosomes.AmalenormallyhasoneXchromosomeandoneYchromosome.TheY
chromosomecontainsthegeneticmaterialwiththecodesthatdeterminethemalegender,
andrelatedmasculinecharacteristicsanddevelopment.MaleswithKlinefelter'ssyndrome
haveanextraXchromosome,whichcausesabnormaldevelopmentofthetesticles.

Undescended testiclesThetesticlesdevelopinsidetheabdomenandusuallymove
downintothescrotumbeforebirth.Sometimes,thisdoesnotoccur.However,inmost
cases,thetesticlesdescendbythechild'sfirstbirthday.Anundescendedtesticlethat
remainsoutsidethescrotumthroughoutchildhoodcanresultinabnormaltesticular
development.

HemochromatosisHemochromatosis,ortoomuchironintheblood,cancausethe
testiclesorthepituitaryglandtomalfunction.

Malfunctions of
Gonads

Testicular trauma Damagetothetesticlescanaffecttheproductionoftestosterone.

Cancer treatmentChemotherapyorradiationtherapy,commontreatmentsforcancer,
caninterferewithtestosteroneandspermproductionbythetesticles.

Normal aging Oldermengenerallyhavelowerlevelsoftestosterone,althoughthe

declineofthehormonevariesgreatlyamongmen.

Pituitary disordersProblemsaffectingthepituitaryglandincludingaheadinjuryor
pituitarytumorcaninterferewiththegland'ssignalstothetesticlestoproduce
testosterone.

Medications Certaindrugscanaffecttestosteroneproduction.Commonlyused
psychiatricdrugsandsomemedicinesusedtotreatgastroesophagealrefluxdisease
(GERD)maycausehypogonadism.

PinealGland

This is a pea-sized gland located in the midbrain.

Melatonin is one of the chemicals isolated from the
pineal. Melatonin affects the skin pigmentation.

Diagram of pituitary
and pineal glands in
the human brain

Micrograph of a
normal pineal gland
very high

Thymus
Gland

The thymus is found under the

breast bone and is active only during
childhood. The thymers atrophies
and, later on, ceases activity after
fifty years of age. The thymus
appears to form antibodies for
immunity.
The true functions of the thymus and
pineal glands are still under

Digestive

Hormones

Gastrin, secreted from the stomach,

stimulates the production of
hydrochloric acid when the food enters
the mouth. The secretion stimulates the
release of pancreatic juice to neutralize
the stomach acid. Cholecystokinin (CCK)
stimulates the release of pancreatic
enzymes and gall bladder contraction.

Prostaglandins

The prostaglandins constitute a family of more than

a dozen fatty acid compounds exerting a wide
diversity of hormonal effects. These hormones are
found in the intestines, liver, kidneys, pancreas,
heart, lungs, thymus, brain and reproductive organs.
The richest source of this hormone is human seminal
fluid. It was earlier taught that the prostaglandins
are came from prostate gland, hence the name.
The effects of prostaglandins are very specific and,
often, opposite actions are produced by closely
related compounds. In general, the effects of
prostaglandins are found in a smooth muscle
contraction, secretion, blood flow and metabolism.

Human Endocrine Glands and

Major Endocrine Glands
Hormones
Hormone
Principal Function
Hypothalamus (via posterior
pituitary)

Hypothalamus

Antediuretichormone(ADH)
oxytocin

Releasingandinhibiting
hormones

Thyroid

Thyroxine
Calcitonin

Parathyroid

Parathormone

Constrictarterioles,promotes
reabsorptionofwaterinkidneysand
sweatglands
Inmales,causesspermejection:
infemales,stimulatescontractionof
uterinemusclesduringchildbirth,
ejectionandmaternalbehaviors
Releasinghormonesstimulate
releaseofhormonesfromanterior
pituitary:inhibitinghormonesinhibit
releaseofhormonesinanterior
pituitary
Regulatesgrowthand
development:increasesmetabolicrate
ofmostbodycells:increasesbody
temperature
Inhibitsincreaseofcalciumfrom
bones
Promotesabsorptionofcalcium
byintestines:promotesreabsorptionof
calciumbykidneystimulatesreleaseof
calciumfrombone

Adrenal Medulla

Adrenalinand
noradrenalin

Adrenal Cortez

Glucocorticoids

Aldosterone

Testosterone

Increasebloodsugar,regulate
sugar,lipidandfatmetabolism,antiinflammatoryeffects

Increasereabsorptionofsaltin
thekidney
Causesmasculinizationofbody
features,growth

Pancreas

Insulin

Glucagon

Decreasesbloodglucoselevels
byincreasinguptakeofglucoseinto
cellsandconvertingglucoseto
glycogen,especiallyinliver:regulates
fatmetabolism

Convertsglycogentoglucose,
therebyraisingbloodglucoselevels

Constrictsomebloodvessels:
increaserateandforceofcontractions
oftheheart:increasesinstabolicrate.
Increaseslevelsofsugarandacidsin
theblood

Ovaries

Estrogen

Testes

Causesdevelopmentoffemale
secondarysexualcharacteristicsand
maturationofeggs:promotegrowthof
uterinelining:hasgeneraleffectson
metabolism

Progesterone

Stimulatesdevelopmentof
uterineliningandformationofplacenta

Testosterone

Stimulatesdevelopmentof
genitaliaandmalesecondarysexual
characteristics:stimulate
spermatogenesisandgrowth:has
generaleffectstometabolism

OTHER SOURCES OF HORMONES

Thymus

Thymosin

Stimulatesmaturationofcellsof
immunesystem

Pineal

Melatonin

Regulatesbiologicalclock:may
regulateonsetofpuberty

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